Real Property Flashcards
Defeasible Estate
An estate with a remainder vested in some person, who may lose the vested interest upon the occurrence of some event
• Requires clear words of intent for the remainder to vest
» Words of desire, hope, or aspiration are insufficient
3 Types of Defeasible Estates
Fee Simple Determinable
Fee Simple Subject to Condition Subsequent
Fee Simple Subject to an Executory Interest
Fee Simple Determinable
Property automatically reverts back to grantor upon the happening of a given event
Phrases such as “for so long as,” “while,” “during,” “until,”
» Accompanying future interest = possibility of reverter (retained by grantor)
Fee Simple Subject to Condition Subsequent
Grantor retains power to terminate grantee’s estate (grantor must take action to terminate; does not occur automatically)
“to A, but if he wins the lottery, grantor reserves the
right to reenter and retake”
» Accompanying future interest = right of reentry (retained by grantor)
Fee simple subject to an executory interest
Property automatically transfers to a third party (i.e., someone other than grantor) upon the happening of a given event
“To A, but if A is ever arrested, then to B”
» Accompanying future interest = shifting executory interest (retained by third party)
Future Interests in Grantor
a) Possibility of reverter
• Accompanies a fee simple determinable
b) Right of reentry/power of termination
• Accompanies a fee simple subject to a condition subsequent
c) Reversion
• Default future interest for grants of an estate smaller than a fee simple, such as life estates
• E.g., “to A for life” or “to A for 99 years”
Future Interests in Grantee
a) Vested remainder — three types:
i. Indefeasibly vested remainder
ii. Vested remainder subject to total divestment
iii. Vested remainder subject to open
b) Contingent remainder
c) Executory interest
Remainder
A future interest in a third person that arises immediately upon the termination of the preceding estate
Vested Remainder
A remainder that automatically becomes possessory upon the natural expiration of the preceding estate
• Limitations — vested remainders cannot:
a) Be subject to any condition precedent
b) Vest in an unknown or unascertained person
Types of Vested Remainders
a) Indefeasibly vested remainders
b) Vested remainder subject to total divestment/ executory limitation
c) Vested remainder subject to open
Types of Contingent Remainders
a) There is a condition precedent to the future interest becoming possessory or
b) The future interest vests in an unascertained taker
Indefeasibly Vested Remainder
Becomes possessory immediately upon termination of the prior estate
Vested Remainder Subject to Total Divestment
Subject to some condition subsequent, such that the remainderman could be divested after taking possession
» E.g., “to A for life, remainder to B; but if B weds, to C”
Vested Remainder Subject to Open (Class Gift)
Remainder vested in a described class of takers, at least one of whom is capable of taking possession (i.e., by virtue of being alive) » Not subject to any condition precedent
Rule of Convenience
Class closes whenever any class member can call for distribution of her share; does not apply if it conflicts with the grantor’s expressed intent
Contingent Remainder
A remainder subject to a condition precedent, which must be satisfied before the interest becomes possessory
Rule of Destructibility
At common law, a contingent
remainder is destroyed if it remains contingent (i.e., the condition is not satisfied) when the preceding estate ends
• E.g., O grants “to A for life, then to B once he goes to law school.” A dies and B has not gone to law school
» At common law, B gets nothing upon A’s death
• Modern rule — gives a reversion to grantor or grantor’s heirs until grantee satisfies the condition
Shelley’s Rule
O grants “to A for life, then to A’s heirs” and A is alive
• At common law, the remainder merges and A has a fee simple absolute
• Modern rule — A has a life estate and A’s heirs have contingent remainders
» O has a reversion b/c A could die without heirs
Doctrine of Worthier Title
O conveys “to A for life, then to O’s heirs”
• The contingent remainder in O’s heirs is void; A instead has a life estate and O has a reversion
Executory Interest
A future interest in a third party that takes effect by cutting short some interest — two types: shifting and springing
• Includes any future interest that is not a remainder
• Look for phrases like “but if,” “then to,” “for so long as,” etc.
• Executory interest holders lack standing to sue for waste
Shifting Executory Interest
Always follows a defeasible fee
• Cuts short someone other than the grantor
• E.g., “to A and his heirs, so long as the property is used for storage. But if used for any other purpose, to B and his heirs”
Springing Executory Interest
Cuts short the interest of the
grantor or his heirs
• E.g., “to A, if and when he gets married”
Rule Against Perpetuities
No property interest is valid unless it must vest, if at all, no later than 21 years after the death of a life in being at the time the interest was created
• I.e., a future interest is void if there is any possibility, no
matter how remote, that it will vest more than 21 years after
the death of the measuring life
When does RAP apply?
RAP applies to:
a) Contingent remainders
b) Executory interests
c) Vested remainders subject to open
Tenancy in Common
An estate with multiple tenants in which each co-tenant owns an individual part and each has a right to possess the whole
Joint Tenancy
Creation — four conditions must concurrently exist when the tenants take their interests:
1) Time — JTs must take their interests at the same time
2) Title — JTs must receive their conveyance through the
same instrument
3) Interest — JTs must take equal and identical interests
4) Possession — JTs must have equal possessory rights
Severance of JT
• Transfer of interest — a JT interest becomes a tenancy in common upon transfer; this does not destroy the entire JT if two or more JTs remain
• Mortgage — lien theory (majority) vs. title theory (minority)
» Lien theory Jx — JT can take a mortgage on her interest without severing JT (b/c no title passes to mortgagee)
» Title theory Jx — JT is severed if any JT takes a mortgage on her interest because title passes to the mortgagee
Tenancy by the Entirety
Created by conveyance to a married couple; requires the same four conditions as a JT (time, title, interest, possession)
• Spouses are co-tenants
• Where recognized, a tenancy by the entirety is presumed in any conveyance made jointly to husband and wife
Severance of Tenancy by the Entirety
1) Death of one co-tenant
2) Mutual agreement of the parties in writing
3) Issuance of a divorce decree
4) Execution by a joint creditor (e.g., foreclosure)
Co-Tenant’s Rights & Duties
Possession Rent from exclusive possession Rent from third parties Adverse possession Carrying costs Repairs Improvements Waste Partition/Forced Sale
Leasehold Estates
An estate in which the tenant has a present possessory property interest and the landlord has a future interest (reversion)
Tenancy for years
Periodic Tenancy
Tenancy at will
Tenancy at sufferance
Tenancy for Years
Lasts for a fixed period of time
» Requires a definitive beginning and end date
» If duration is longer than one year, lease must be in
writing (required under SoF)
» Terminates automatically at the end of the fixed period
• No notice is required
» Also referred to as “estate for
Periodic Tenancy
A leasehold that is continuous for successive intervals (e.g.,
weeks or months) until either party gives notice of termination one full period in advance
Tenancy at Will
A tenancy with no fixed duration, terminable by either party at any time without notice
Tenancy at Sufferance
A default tenancy that arises when a tenant continues to possess property after the lease expires (i.e., a holdover tenant)
Options for Holdover Tenant
1) Sue to evict
2) Impose a new periodic tenancy
» Raised rent — landlord can demand higher rent for both
the holdover period and any new periodic tenancy if he
gave notice of the increase before the lease expired
» Commercial leases — if expired lease was for one year or longer, the new periodic tenancy can be year-to-year
Tenant’s Duties at Common Law
Duty to Repair
Duty to Pay Rent
Duty to not use for illegal purposes
Fixtures
Once-movable chattel that is annexed (i.e., attached) to real
property, indicating an intent to permanently improve property
• E.g., heating systems, lighting installations
LL Remedy Tenant Remains Possession
Landlord may:
1) File for notice of eviction
2) Continue the lease and sue for rent due
LL Remedy Tenant Abandons Premises
Landlord may:
1) Surrender — treat the abandonment as tenant’s surrender and accept it, releasing the tenant from the lease
2) Ignore (minority rule) — hold tenant liable for unpaid rent
3) Re-let (majority rule) — lease premises to new tenants and hold the breaching tenant liable for any losses
LL Duties & Warranties
Duty to Deliver
Implied Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment
Implied Warranty of Habitability
Tort Liability
LL Duty to Deliver
» Majority — actual possession
• Landlord must deliver physical possession to tenant
» Minority — legal possession (i.e., right to possess)
• New tenant is responsible for any holdovers on property
» Tenant’s remedy for breach = money damages
Implied Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment
A tenant has an implied right to quiet use and enjoyment of the premises, without interference from the landlord
• Breach may occur by actual eviction or constructive eviction
Actual Eviction
Landlord wrongfully evicts or excludes tenant from property
Constructive Eviction
Landlord’s actions or inactions render the property uninhabitable
• Elements:
1) Substantial interference — major and/or chronic
problems (e.g., leaky roof)
2) Notice — tenant must inform the landlord and give
him a reasonable opportunity to repair; landlord must
fail to act meaningfully
3) Vacate — tenant must vacate within a reasonable
period after the landlord fails to repair
Retaliatory Eviction
Landlord is prohibited from
retaliatory eviction if a tenant lawfully reports housing code
violations
Implied Warranty of Habitability
Residential property must be fit for basic human dwelling
T Remedy for Breach fo WoH
1) Move — vacate premises and terminate the lease
2) Repair — make reasonable repairs and deduct the costs
from future rent
3) Reduce or withhold rent — tenant can reduce rent or stop payment until a court determines the fair rental value given the breach
» Tenant must place withheld rent in escrow
4) Remain — tenant can remain in possession and seek money damages
LL Tort Liabilties
Common Areas
Latent Defects
Assumption of Repairs
Public Use
LL Common Areas
Duty of reasonable care
» Landlord must exercise reasonable care in maintaining and repairing common areas (e.g., hallways, stairs)
LL Latent Defects
Duty to disclose
» Landlord has a duty to disclose hidden defects he
should reasonably know of
LL Assumption of Repairs
Negligence standard
» Landlord is liable for harm caused by negligent repairs
he chooses to undertake
LL Public Use
Landlord is liable for known defects if he knows the property is for public use and tenant is unlikely to repair
» E.g., concert hall, convention center
Assignment
Entire leasehold transfers from tenant to assignee
• Assignee is in privity of estate with landlord — the two are bound by all covenants that run with the land
• Assignor remains in privity of contract with landlord
• Assignee owes rent directly to landlord, but assignor may be held liable for unpaid rent
Sublease
Partial leasehold transfers from sublessor to sublessee
• Sublessor is in privity of estate and contract with landlord (i.e., relationship between tenant and landlord is unchanged)
» Sublessee pays rent to sublessor as her tenant
• Sublessee is not liable to landlord for rent and is not bound by any covenants unless expressly assumed
Easement
A non-possessory property interest that confers a right to use another’s land
• Servient estate = burdened land
• Dominant estate = benefited land (not always applicable)
Easement Appurtenant
Entitles a dominant estate owner to use a servient estate’s land
» Attaches to the dominant estate and passes automatically (even if not mentioned in a conveyance)
Easement in Gross
Entitles an individual or entity (not a dominant landowner) to use the servient estate
» Does not attach to land; there is no dominant estate
Affirmative Easement
Entitles its holder to make
affirmative use of the servient estate
Negative Easement
Entitles its holder to restrict the servient estate from otherwise permissible activities
Types of Easements
Prescription
Necessity
Implication
Express
Easement by Prescription
A process of acquiring an easement; similar to acquiring title by adverse possession
Requirements — acquirer’s use of another’s land must be:
1) Continuous — for the applicable statutory period
2) Open and notorious — owner knows or should know of use
3) Actual
4) Hostile — without owner’s permission
Easement by Implication
An easement legally implied based on prior use by a common grantor on land subsequently divided into multiple plots
Requirements:
1) Easement exists prior to division of a single tract of land
2) Common grantor’s use is continuous and apparent
3) Use is reasonably necessary for enjoyment of the dominant tenement
4) Parties intended the use to continue after division of the
land
Easement by Necessity
An easement can arise if access to or from a property is impossible without the easement (i.e., the easement’s existence
becomes necessary)
Creation — usually arises when a landowner sells a portion of her property and the resulting division deprives one lot owner of access to a public road or utility
Termination — expires automatically when the necessity ends
Express Easement
Grant or Reservation Express easements must be: 1) In writing 2) Signed by the servient estate holder 3) Satisfy deed formalities (i.e., lawfully executed and delivered)
Scope of Easement
An easement’s scope is determined by the terms or conditions that created it
Expansion of Easement
Easement holders cannot unilaterally expand the scope of their easement, e.g., through overuse or misuse
• Remedy for violation = injunction
Termination of Easements
Estoppel Necessity Ends Destruction of Servient Tenement Release Abandonment Merger Prescription
Negative Easement Categories
Entitles the holder to prevent the servient landowner from
engaging in otherwise permissible actions on his own land
4 categories of acts may be prevented:
1) Light
2) Air
3) Support
4) Stream of water from an artificial flow
License
A privilege to enter another’s land for some delineated purpose (not an interest in land) • Licensor may revoke the privilege at any time, unless estoppel applies (e.g., licensor has allowed licensee to contribute substantial money, labor, etc.)
Profit
A nonpossessory property interest entitling its holder
to enter a servient estate to remove resources (e.g., minerals, timber, soil, fish)
• All rules governing easements apply to profits (i.e., creation, transferability, and termination)
Covenant
A promise to do or refrain from doing something related to land
• A contractual limitation or promise regarding land
Real Covenant
A covenant concerning real property
• Runs with the land at law — subsequent owners may be
burdened by the covenant or may enforce it
» Different requirements apply for burdens and benefits
running with the land
• Affirmative covenant — a promise to do something related to land
Restrictive covenant — a promise to refrain from doing
something related to land
Termination of Real Covenant
a) Written release
b) Merger of benefited and burdened estates
c) Condemnation of burdened property
Covenant Burden to Run with the Land
Writing Intent Touches and Concerns Horizontal and Vertical Privity Notice
Covenant Benefit to Run with the Land
Writing
Intent
Touches and Concerns
Vertical Privity
Equitable Servitudes
A promise enforced in equity against successors through
injunctive relief (i.e., injunction is the remedy)
• Virtually the same as a covenant, except for the remedy
• Privity is not required to bind successors
Creation Requirements Equitable Servitudes
Writing
Intent
Touches and Concerns
Notice
Reciprocal Negative Servitudes
Lot owners in residential subdivisions may enforce restrictions on the use of property against other subdivision lot owners
• May be implied from a common development scheme of a residential subdivision but requires notice.
Adverse Possession
A trespasser may acquire title to another’s property without
compensation by possessing the property for a specified period, in a manner conflicting with the true owner’s rights
Requirements of Adverse Possession
Continuous for Statutory Period
Open and Notorious
Actual and Exclusive
Hostile
AP Continuous for Statutory Period
Possession must be
similar to an ordinary owner’s use of the property
» Daily possession is not required if an ordinary user
would not use the property daily (e.g., winter cabin)
AP Open and Notorious
Trespasser’s possession must be conspicuous, such that the true owner would know of the trespass if he inspected his property regularly
» Owner need not actually know of the trespasser’s use
AP Actual and Exclusive
Must possess a reasonable portion of the property to the exclusion of the owner and the public
AP Hostile
Possession must be without owner’s permission
» No knowledge or intent requirement (i.e., trespasser
need not intend to adversely possess)
AP Color of Title
A claim of title to property not actually owned
• Adversely possessing part of the property under color of title is sufficient to acquire title to the entire property
AP Gov’t Land
Cannot be acquired through adverse possession
AP SoL
Disability — SoL does not begin to run if the true owner was under some disability when the adverse possession began
» Disability acquired during adverse possession does not
toll SoL
• Future interests — SoL does not run against future interest
holders until the interest becomes possessory
AP Tacking
Adverse possessors can tack together successive periods of adverse possession to satisfy the statutory period, even if successive possession was by different adverse possessors
» Must be successive — there cannot be gaps between
periods of adverse possession
AP Concurrent Owners
Co-tenants may not adversely possess each others’ interests unless ouster has occurred
Land Sale K
1) In writing
2) Signed by the parties to be bound
3) Articulate essential terms (e.g., consideration to be paid,
description of the land)
Land Sale K Exception to SoF
Partial performance
• A land sale contract is outside the SoF if the buyer takes possession and either:
a) Pays all or part of the purchase price, or
b) Makes substantial improvements
Equitable Conversion
During escrow (after land sale contract but before deed delivery), buyer owns the real property, but seller owns personal property (the right to proceeds of the sale) • Seller holds legal title in trust for buyer
Land Sale Death of Party
If buyer or seller dies before closing, rights to the contract pass according to interests held
• Seller’s interest passes as personal property
» I.e., seller’s heirs can sue for sale proceeds
• Buyer’s interest passes as real property
» I.e., buyer’s heirs can sue for delivery
Land Sale Risk of Loss
If property is destroyed before closing through no fault of the parties, buyer bears the risk of loss
• Parties can contract differently
• Seller must credit any insurance proceeds from loss against the purchase price
Marketable Title
» Promise that title is free from risk of litigation
» Defects rendering title unmarketable:
a) Acquired by adverse possession
b) Encumbered by interests (e.g., servitude, mortgage,
future interest); but seller has the right to satisfy outstanding mortgages or liens with sale proceeds
c) Zoning ordinance violations existing at sale
Disclose Facts
» Seller must not materially misrepresent facts or make false statements concerning the property
» Seller must disclose latent material defects
» Seller cannot limit liability through disclaimers
» New property — seller/builder is subject to an implied warranty of fitness/quality in construction
Breach Before Closing
Buyer must notify seller before closing and give reasonable time for seller to cure defects
• If seller fails to cure, buyer can rescind, file for damages,
demand specific performance, or file suit to quiet title
• If buyer fails to notify seller before closing, contract merges with the deed and seller is not liable
Deed Requirements
1) Lawfully executed — deed must be signed by grantor and must reasonably identify the parties and the land
2) Delivered — requires intent to be bound by the conveyance
• Title passes upon effective delivery; cannot be rescinded
• Present intent controls; physical transfer not required
• Acceptance — grantee must accept the deed;
acceptance is usually presumed upon valid delivery
• Rejection by grantee = ineffective delivery
Types of Deeds
General Warranty
Special Warranty
Quitclaim
General Warranty
Includes all six covenants Seisin Right to Convey Against Encumbrances Quiet Enjoyment Warranty Further Assurances
Special Warranty
Grantor assures that:
a) He has not conveyed the land to another
b) The land is free from encumbrances made by grantor
Quitclaim Deed
No covenants included; grantor is not even
promising he has title to convey
Present Covenants
(only breached at the time of delivery):
1) Seisin — grantor covenants that he is the rightful owner (i.e., has title, possession) and that deed covers described land
2) Right to convey — grantor covenants that he has the right to convey
3) Against encumbrances — grantor covenants that the land is free from encumbrances (e.g., servitudes, mortgages)
Future Covenants
(only breached after delivery):
4) Quiet enjoyment — grantor covenants that grantee will not be disturbed by a third party’s claim of lawful title
5) Warranty — grantor agrees to defend against lawful claims of title by others
6) Further assurances — grantor promises to perform future acts reasonably necessary to perfect the title conveyed
Bona Fide Purchaser
A BFP purchases property for value (i.e., gives pecuniary
consideration) without notice of a prior conveyance
Notice BFP
Actual notice — actual knowledge, from any source
• Inquiry notice — what a reasonable inspection of the land would reveal (regardless of whether buyer actually inspects)
• Record notice — knowledge from a routine title search
» E.g., a previous conveyance properly recorded in the
chain of title (not a wild deed)
Notice Recording Statutes
Subsequent BFP always prevails
• Whether or not she recorded first, a subsequent BFP always prevails over a prior grantee who fails to record
• Sample language: “No conveyance or mortgage of an interest in land shall be valid against any subsequent purchaser for value without notice thereof unless it is recorded”
Race-Notice Recording Statutes
First subsequent BFP to record prevails
• Sample language: “No conveyance or mortgage of an interest in land shall be valid against any subsequent purchaser for value without notice thereof whose conveyance is first recorded”
Race Recording Statutes
First grantee to record prevails, regardless of
whether buyer is a BFP
• E.g., non-BFP purchaser who records first prevails over BFP
• Sample language: “No conveyance or mortgage of an interest in land shall be valid against a subsequent purchaser whose conveyance is first recorded”
Shelter Rule
One who takes from a BFP will prevail against any interest the transferor-BFP would have prevailed against, even if
the transferee had actual notice of a prior conveyance
• Protects donees, heirs, or devisees of BFPs who cannot
qualify as BFPs and would not otherwise receive protection
under notice or race-notice statutes
Wild Deeds
A recorded deed unconnected to the chain of title (e.g., due to a clerk’s filing error)
• Record notice cannot be derived from a wild deed
Estoppel by Deed
One who conveys land in which she has no interest is estopped from denying the validity of the conveyance
if she subsequently acquires the same interest
• Prevents one from fraudulently conveying land and later validly acquiring it (i.e., laundering title)
Mortgage
A security interest in land that serves as collateral for the
repayment of a loan
Parties’ Rights for Mortgages
Under majority theory (“Lien Theory”), mortgagor has title
and the right to possession absent foreclosure
• Mortgagee has a lien, conferring a right to take action for ownership of the land if the mortgagor defaults on the loan
• Under minority theory (“Title theory”), mortgagee has title
to the property during loan term, not mortgagor-borrower
» Note — unless instructed otherwise, assume lien
theory applies on the MBE
Equitable Mortgage
Debtor gives creditor a deed to his land as collateral for the debt (instead of executing a mortgage)
Mortgagee Transfer
Endorsing the mortgage note and delivering it to transferee
• Executing a separate assignment of the mortgage interest
Foreclosure
Upon default, mortgagee can satisfy debt through foreclosure by judicial action
• Property is sold to satisfy the debt in whole or in part
• Deficiency judgment — if the debt exceeds sale proceeds, mortgagee can file suit against mortgagor for debt balance
• If proceeds exceed the debt balance, junior liens are paid in order of priority
Redemption in Equity
At any time prior to the foreclosure sale, mortgagor can redeem the property by paying the amount due
• Some jurisdictions allow mortgagor, for a certain period, to buy back the property after foreclosure sale
Mortgagee Right to Possession
Mortgagee’s right to possession prior to foreclosure depends on the jurisdiction:
• Lien theory — no right to possess prior to foreclosure
• Title theory — right to possess at any time upon demand
Priority of Creditors
Recorded interests take priority in the order recorded
Purchase Money Mortgage
Superior to all interests
» PMM = mortgage given in exchange for funds used to
buy the property
Junior Interests
Terminated by foreclosure of a superior claim
• Foreclosure terminates all junior interests; junior interest
holders cannot look to the land to satisfy debts
Senior Interests
Unaffected by junior interest foreclosures
• Buyer of foreclosed property takes it subject to senior interests
Lateral Support
Ownership of land includes the right to have land supported in its natural state by adjoining land; landowners can be liable for excavations that cause damage to adjacent land
Claims for Lateral Support
1) Negligence — if adjacent landowner’s excavation
causes damage to developed land, excavating owner is
only liable if he acted negligently
2) Strict liability — P must show his land would have
collapsed, even in its natural state, due to D’s excavations
Subjacent Support
• Underground (subjacent) structures must support surface structures existing when the subjacent estate was created
» Subjacent owners are strictly liable for failure to
support pre-existing surface structures
• Negligence standard applies for subjacent structures
erected prior to surface structures
Water Rights
Land bordering watercourses (natural or artificial bodies of
water, e.g., lakes and rivers) is governed by either the riparian doctrine or the prior appropriation doctrine
Riparian Doctrine
Water belongs to those who own land bordering the watercourse.
Water Rights Reasonable Use Theory
Riparian owners share
rights to reasonable use and are liable to other owners if
their use unreasonably interferes with other owners’ use
» Balance utility of use vs. gravity of harm
Water Rights Natural Flow Theory
Riparian owners may be
enjoined for any use resulting in a substantial or material
reduction in others’ water quantity or quality
Prior Appropriation Doctrine
Water rights are acquired by
actual use
• Priority of beneficial use determines rights to water
Groundwater
Water beneath the surface not confined to a known channel (e.g., water in wells)
• Surface owner is entitled to make reasonable use of
groundwater, but must not be wasteful (majority)
Surface Water
Water from rain, springs, or other runoff that has not yet reached a natural watercourse
• Landowners can generally use surface water as they
please, but may be liable for interrupting its flow
Variance Zoning
Landowners can get govt. permission to be exempt or vary from literal restrictions of a zoning ordinance
• To qualify for a variance, a landowner must show:
1) Undue hardship, and
2) Variance will not negatively impact surrounding
property values
Nonconforming Use Zoning
A once lawful existing use for property, now deemed nonconforming under new zoning laws
• Govt. cannot eliminate a use all at once (i.e., “zone out”) unless just compensation is paid
Special Use Permit Zoning
Certain property uses require a special use permit even where zoning generally allows the type of use (e.g., hospitals and drive-thrus in commercial zoning districts)
