Readings From Textbook

Question 1

Anecdotal evidence

Answer 1

A piece of biased evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, is used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct.

Question 2

Causality

Answer 2

In research, the determination that one variable causes—is responsible for—an effect.

Question 3

Correlation

Answer 3

In statistics, the measure of the relatedness of two or more variables.

Question 4

Data (also called observations)

Answer 4

In research, information is systematically collected for analysis and interpretation.

Question 5

Deductive reasoning

Answer 5

A form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of specific observations (e.g., All birds have feathers; since a duck is a bird, it has feathers).

Question 6

Distribution

Answer 6

In statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variable.

Question 7

Empirical

Answer 7

Concerned with observation and/or the ability to verify a claim.

Question 8

Fact

Answer 8

Objective information about the world.

Question 9

Falsify

Answer 9

In science, the ability of a claim to be tested and—possibly—refuted; a defining feature of science.

Question 10

Generalize

Answer 10

In research, the degree to which one can extend conclusions drawn from the findings of a study to other groups or situations not included in the study.

Question 11

Hypothesis

Answer 11

A tentative explanation that is subject to testing.

Question 12

Induction

Answer 12

To draw general conclusions from specific observations.

Question 13

Inductive reasoning

Answer 13

A form of reasoning in which a general conclusion is inferred from a set of observations (e.g., noting that “the driver in that car was texting; he just cut me off then ran a red light!” (a specific observation), which leads to the general conclusion that texting while driving is dangerous).

Question 14

Levels of analysis

Answer 14

In science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena.

Question 15

Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)

Answer 15

In statistics, a test is created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis were true.

Question 16

Objective

Answer 16

Being free of personal bias.

Question 17

Population

Answer 17

In research, all the people belonging to a particular group (e.g., the population of left-handed people).

Question 18

Probability

Answer 18

A measure of the degree of certainty of the occurrence of an event.

Question 19

Probability values

Answer 19

In statistics, the established threshold for determining whether a given value occurs by chance.

Question 20

Pseudoscience

Answer 20

Beliefs or practices that are presented as being scientific, or which are mistaken for being scientific, but which are not scientific (e.g., astrology, the use of celestial bodies to make predictions about human behaviors, and which presents itself as found in astronomy, the actual scientific study of celestial objects. Astrology is a pseudoscience unable to be falsified, whereas astronomy is a legitimate scientific discipline).

Question 21

Representative

Answer 21

In research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn.

Question 22

Sample

Answer 22

In research, several people are selected from a population to serve as an example of that population.

Question 23

Scientific theory

Answer 23

An explanation for observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent, and fruitful (predictive).

Question 24

Type I error

Answer 24

In statistics, the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.

Question 25

Type II error

Answer 25

In statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

Question 26

Value

Answer 26

Belief about the way things should be.

Question 27

Confounds

Answer 27

Factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment.

Question 28

Correlation

Answer 28

Measures the association between two variables, or how they go together.

Question 29

Dependent variable

Answer 29

The variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.

Question 30

Experimenter expectations

Answer 30

When the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of a study.

Question 31

Independent variable

Answer 31

The variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.

Question 32

Longitudinal study

Answer 32

A study that follows the same group of individuals over time.

Question 33

Operational definitions

Answer 33

How researchers specifically measure a concept.

Question 34

Participant demand

Answer 34

When participants behave in a way that they think the experimenter wants them to behave.

Question 35

Ambulatory assessment

Answer 35

An overarching term to describe methodologies that assess the behavior, physiology, experience, and environments of humans in naturalistic settings.

Question 36

Daily Diary method

Answer 36

A methodology where participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior of the day at the end of the day.

Question 37

Day reconstruction method (DRM)

Answer 37

A methodology where participants describe their experiences and behavior of a given day retrospectively upon a systematic reconstruction on the following day.

Question 38

Ecological momentary assessment

Answer 38

An overarching term to describe methodologies that repeatedly sample participants’ real-world experiences, behavior, and physiology in real-time.

Question 39

Ecological validity

Answer 39

The degree to which a study finding has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life.

Question 40

Electronically activated recorder, or EAR

Answer 40

A methodology where participants wear a small, portable audio recorder that intermittently records snippets of ambient sounds around them.

Question 41

Experience-sampling method

Answer 41

A methodology where participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at different points in time over the course of a day.

Question 42

External validity

Answer 42

The degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings.

Question 43

Full-cycle psychology

Answer 43

A scientific approach whereby researchers start with an observational field study to identify an effect in the real world, follow up with laboratory experimentation to verify the effect and isolate the causal mechanisms and return to field research to corroborate their experimental findings.

Question 44

Generalize

Answer 44

Generalizing, in science, refers to the ability to arrive at broad conclusions based on a smaller sample of observations. For these conclusions to be true the sample should accurately represent the larger population from which it is drawn.

Question 45

Internal validity

Answer 45

The degree to which a cause-effect relationship between two variables has been unambiguously established.

Question 46

Linguistic inquiry and word count

Answer 46

A quantitative text analysis methodology that automatically extracts grammatical and psychological information from a text by counting word frequencies.

Question 47

Lived day analysis

Answer 47

A methodology where a research team follows an individual around with a video camera to objectively document a person’s daily life as it is lived.

Question 48

Whitecoat hypertension

Answer 48

A phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctor’s office but not in their everyday lives.