Reading - Media/ Marketing a Cause Flashcards
Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (2005)
5) The genius of the National Foundation (maybe not a patients’ organization - must check) lay in its ability to single out polio for special attention, making it seem more ominous and more curable than other diseases. Its strategy would revolutionize the way charities raised money, recruited volunteers etc… created a new model for giving in modern America - philanthropy as consumerism, with donors promised the ultimate personal reward: protection against the disease
82) polio poster child. Donald Anderson. Wistful look and enormous eyes seemed to capture (83) impact of polio upon the most innocent of lives
188) The Salk vaccine trials 1954 hold a special, almost reverential, place in the annals of American medicine
211) Here, truly, was the people’s vaccine, spearheaded by a charitable foundation, driven by the spirit of voluntarism, subsidized by millions of small contributions, aided by numerous scientists, tested on enthusiastic volunteers. Birthday balls, theatre drives, fashion shows, marching mothers, poster children - all played a role. Developed in the public interest, this particular vaccine belonged to everybody
Crossley
Look at this work too!
Mawdsley, Selling Science: Polio and the Promise of Gamma Globulin (2016)
9) Perceptions of and reactions to polio were shaped by the media. Newspaper writers brought to readers emotional accounts of desperate families
10) The names and addresses of stricken individuals were listed in newspapers, exacerbating the culture of suspicion already evident during epidemics. The media not only captured the sense of powerlessness, but also helped make polio and its consequences front-page news.
Complementing media coverage, the NFIP devoted substantial resources to public education and March of Dimes publicity.
Beginning in 1946, photogenic child polio survivors were selected to adorn national fund-raising posters.
Short films about polio and the March of Dimes e.g. The Crippler were introduced during the 1940s to headline some cinematic productions.
Dramatic approach taken by NFIP producers heightened the fear of polio, but also delivered a potent message of hope through charitable donation.
12) When evd revealed that GG did little to control polio, a publicity program was unleashed in defense. At a time when most Americans trusted scientists and the NFIP, contrived publicity and fear of contagion enticed them into an unequal alliance with science.
historians have not investigated the testing of GG or how its use reveals the nature of clinical trial marketing during the Cold War.
13) Before the GG field trials, scientists did not know whether the public would willingly participated in experiments that did not guarantee safety or efficacy
59) Ducas - experienced publicist.
Helped reorient polio fund-raising away from the politically charged CCPB to the ostensibly apolitical March of Dimes.
Shifted the main appeal from one of paying tribute to the nation’s President to one of unashamed exploitation of the pathetic appeals of crippled children
65) At local lvl, media coverage had two agendas: the study had to be attractive enough to entice parents, but tempered enough to avoid implying that GG was effective.
At national lvl, the coverage had to address widespread interest, yet discourage parents from seeking private GG injections from family physicians
NFIP officials wrote special background stories and ‘approved’ news releases for distribution when the study commenced
66) ‘Test does not promise protection from polio’. By anticipating media demands, NFIP officials hoped to discourage sensationalist coverage and shape how the study was presented.
NFIP hoped to mediate the interaction between Hammon’s team and journalists. To reduce misstatements, Ducas advised the team to address journalists from a prepared script and be willing to repeat content, even if word for word.
Cautious approach towards media interactions
NFIP keen to control photographic content e.g. pictures w long needles might convey negative sentiments
67) mechanisms to manage inquiries - aiming to reduce sensationalism
77) Hammon’s address to the Utah County med soc was a masterpiece in persuasive marketing. Did much to reassure local docs, w pretension of openness and deference to clinical judgement.
78) omitted and minimized potential problems
80) winning the support of journalists and broadcasters
81) Media event. invited Utah reporters to a ‘dress rehearsal’ of injection clinics. Docs used own bodies to demonstrate faith in the study echoing similar practices among 19th C med researchers - moral traditions. Attempting to connect to this moral trope and uphold public perceptions of med science as a responsible discipline occupied by concerned experts
82) submitted their children for the study
Utah journalists and broadcasters helped normalize the form of consent. Since media coverage of the form did not address health risks, Utah newspapers situated the legal waiver as a reasonable expectation and an uncontroversial concept when seeking children’s inclusion in a med experiment
83) announcement for delivery at Sunday church services, aiming to captivate lay audiences and allay their fears
93) Publicity campaign worked and most participating families had shown unexpected gratitude.
Sociological victory of the study - revealed that citizens wld willingly participate in a large med experiment
94) failure in candidly admitting to hlth risks
100) obtaining testimonials to give further trial publicity a ‘personal approach’
102) marketing played important role. Approval of county docs and hlth officials was used to sell the program to other groups.
104) media campaign leading to misconceptions over trial leadership - some local community leaders thinking Hammon was an NFIP employee
111) Marketing campaign in Sioux City and South Sioux City.
Citizens were asked to participate out of duty and to help scientists reach an answer
116) JAMA articles - volunteer contributions played down in favour of stressing contributions of scientists and scientific elements of the study - to increase its merit
118) W no open acknowledgement of the serious problems that had plagued Hammon’s GG study, media rushed in to celebrate the blood fraction and the dawn of temporary polio protection
119) NFIP short film, Operation Marbles, upheld public assumptions of med research as rational, safe and valuable - (121) Op Marb = important publicity vehicle.
To reinforce notions of progress, producers contrasted the ideal of polio prevention w the indignity of polio treatment.
Helped to sell the trial as a scientific victory
126) Tensions between organisations helping to organize national study. No unified publicity campaign
128) NFIP efforts to stress links between themselves and GG, and play down expectations
135) becoming clear that hopes vested in GG had been misplaced - Time magazine - ‘Decision Reversed’
136) The NFIP mandate to fund med research and show progress in the war against polio created a publicity monster that was difficult to slay
138) NFIP attempts to overturn tarnished perceptions of the national program, but declining faith in the blood fraction was difficult to counter. Only by turning Americans’ attention to another intervention could they hope to save face - STALK
140) NFIP officials applied their experience w GG to the clinical trials of the first polio vaccine. Since Hammon’s study showed that parents wld volunteer their hlthy children to an experiment that did not promise safety or efficacy, NFIP officials were confident that an enormous civilian med study was achievable.
Use of publicity materials were proven as vital recruitment tools
141) The NFIP bet its institutional credibility on the vaccine trial (rather than GG).
Results of the vaccine field trial legitimized the efforts of the NFIP and helped America forget about its dubious fascination w GG for polio
GG study = a marketing success
GG trials revealed that the pursuit of knowledge, however unethical and limited in scientific value, can blind researchers and their sponsoring agencies.
For the NFIP, selling the experiments and their aftermath became more important than the underlying science
Unexpected legacy of the GG trial was to reveal the ways in which marketing could shape scientific research
Wilson, Des, Pressure: The A to Z of Campaigning in Britain (1984)
ix) draws on much experience
80) pressure groups and the media need each other. Pressure groups are the source of well-researched, controversial stories to the media and the media is necessary for the pressure group to make an impact.
Best way to deal w media - be businesslike and professional and try to achieve feeling of partnership.
85) media’s insatiable appetite - always be looking for feature ideas
87) Best way to achieve consistent and reasonable coverage in national newspapers is to develop a small list of key contacts. Identify who will be sympathetic
88) importance of the high brow and less high brow press
90) TV people don’t care about you - ruthless profession.
93) Whether or not you have a formal membership of your campaign must depend on its likely duration
(116) Importance of presentation - effective speakers. As always begin with the question: what is the object of the exercise?
117) get clear understanding of the nature of the occasion
Inglis, F., Media Theory: An Introduction (1990)
3) Medium = what transforms experience into knowledge.
Media provide the signs which give meaning to the events of everyday life
16) Media theory brings together the history of ideas and history of economic production. It is by this token political theory
29) Newspaper tells an intelligible story w a plot, heroes, villains, actions and direction, about the way of the world. It settles us in a sufficiently ‘knowable community’, while placing those who are known in a believable nearness to those who are not.
All narratives have a moral point to make - keystone of arch of media theory
96) Structuralism - theory that al human organization is determined by large, social or psychological structures which have their own irresistible logic independent of human intention, will or purpose
97-8) Barthes - dynamic reciprocal motion between signifier (word/ meaning) and signified (object/ form)
99) Semiological decisions involved in Oxfam keeping poster picture black and white. Here, signified has greater resonance than signifier
108) Foucault, Said, discourse
113) looseness of the idea of ‘mass’ in the phrases ‘mass media’ and ‘mass audience’ - there are no masses, only varying sizes of overlapping minorities
116) Capitalist production depends on the successful mass production and distribution of its commodity
117) By and large, the first value of a cultural product is its novelty
134) Public is defined by conventional media theory as an audience, and an audience only listens
137) The ideal individual constructed by liberalism is a v specific person: rational (but with deep feelings), self-aware, morally autonomous, non-dogmatic, hard-working, sincere, honest.
Hero and heroine of 19th-C novels. Also inscribed in other key discourses of the century, esp those invented, acc to Foucault, to consolidate the ‘carceral’ or imprisoning State.
The law is one such discourse, and the legal system also puts at its centre this ideal individual.
Regulation of normality
139) Above all, audiences, and the effects they register, are not formal units in formal theory, but practical subjects making active use of the cultural expressions they find to hand
(143) Incalculability of direct media effects
148) Audience research has concentrated for a long time on the effects of mass media (supremely TV) on political beliefs and actions in a v down-the-line view of politics. Perhaps this is so because its practitioners are themselves of a class on the fringes of politics-with-a-capital-P, and they tend to overestimate its importance in the lives of others
149) Mass media set the cultural-political agenda for one another, and this only changes within their terms of reference and cognitive set. Certain events and topics are what count as news
Graham Murdock - news must be framed as event
152) Psychosis designates a rhythm of compulsion and gratification of a regular but unregulable kind in which the play of fantasy upon experience is such as to preclude rational reflection or the direction of action towards diverse ends. In countless narratives on American film and TV, the circuit of action is closed to reflection in this way.
(153) Vengeance blameless. Ethics returned to ritual. No difficulty about moral decision.
This = dark sid eof the audience
Morley - by and large, fams do not just slump round the set - they argue about what’s going on, fight for the zapper, do the ironing, talk to visitors
154) Sorting out the varieties of human response to the mass media is like reading the encyclopedia. It’s all bits and pieces
157) anti-passivity.
Communication systems are public and purposeful. They do not make up meanings from scratch, but rather come along replete with meanings from which we have to select what seem to us the most sensible, while we discard the rest
171) Media theory must take art seriously
187) Knowledge motivates action
Schut, Strategic Simulations of Our Past (about videogames but useful metaphor I think)
A hardcore devotion to the interpretive power of the audience ignores the necessity of symbol creation for communication to occur. Media users do not receive just anything in the process of communication; what they receive has been created (often thoughtfully) and delivered with tools that have specific abilities and limitations
medium bias is like a hill. The slope (bias) of the ground is going to make moving in the direction of the top of the hill more difficult than moving down the hill (or across it)
Traudt, P., Media, Audiences, Effects: An Introduction to the Study of Media Content and Audience Analysis (2005)
5) Defines mass media as the range of print, electronic and filmic opportunities (6) supported by multiple platforms for presentation and consumption
Mass communication is the process by which individual audience mems engage and give meaning to media contents
8) importance of function of other communication sphere e.g. talking, recommending something to watch/ read
22) Common criticism of mass media effects research is that some researchers assume cause-and-effect relationships between media content and audience attitudes or behavioural changes without first systematically documenting what is in print, what is broadcast over the air, what is piped through cample or high-speed internet connection
24) Practice of coding is important component of content analytic studies. Coding is the process where one or more researchers examine and assign the same meaning to an identical piece of media content.
Typically, content analytic reports include detailed description as to how measures were coded, how coders were trained, and how coders were tested to assess mutual lvls of agreement.
Usually more than one person responsible for coding the sample of media content. This is done to reduce potential for single-coder bias.
Intercoder reliability calculation
44) Petrie and colleagues (1986) performed a content analysis of GQ and Esquire magazines in order to determine messages about male attractiveness.
Sample consisted of every other issue of the two publications over a 32-year period, with alternate months selected for every other ye.
Results indicated a consistent message about male ideal body types over the 32 yr period….
Wilson and Blackhurst (1999) conducted a descriptive analysis of prominent themes in magazine advertising for foods targeting women. The researchers concluded that such adverts encourage dieting and emphasize low-far or nonfat foods as the only option for dieters
Scott, Denniston Magruder (1992) - analyzed television and radio advertising lyrics and cited violation of federal guidelines, use of controversial celebrities, and associations of product with ‘violence’ that is so prevalent on inner-city streets’.
They provided accounts of how community activist groups were able to halt such advertising practices through coordinated efforts
105) Craig (1992a) examined portrayals of both women and men on US network TV for weekday afternoon soap operas, weekday prime-time programming and weekend afternoon sports. Results showed that ‘television commercials targeted to one sex tend to portray gender differently than ads targeted to the other sex’.
Daytime ads focus on traditional stereotypical images assoc w the American housewife - cooking, cleaning, child care
To look at
Petrie, Crowley, Helmcamp (etc) (1996)< Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for males, Sex Roles, 35, 581-602
Wilson, Blackhurst (1999) Food advertising and eating disorders: Marketing body dissatisfaction, the drive for thinnes, and dieting in women’s magazines. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 38, 111-122
Scott, Denniston Magruder (1992), Alcohol advertising in the African-American community, Journal of Drug Issues, 22, 455-69
Craig (1992a), The effect of television day part on gender portrayals in television commercials. A content analysis. Sex Roles, 26, 197-212
193) Weaver and Drew assessing role that media played in voter intentions during the 2000 presidential election
193) News media serve to set agendas for what ppl think is important in their world.
Boyle (2001) - examination of intermedia agenda setting - messages in one type of media may influence agendas in other forms of media.
194) 24 issue categories were coded and included such topics as taxes, leadership, political processes, drugs, and the economy. Some support found for the argument that major party TV advertising influenced the network news agenda
Boyle (2001), Intermedia agenda setting in the 1996 presidential election. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78, 26-44
