Reading 6 Flashcards
unions). The results indicate
that export partner
concentration, commodity concentration, multinational corporate penetration, and
International Monetary Fund conditionality increase deforestation more at higher rather
than at lower levels of repression.
Forests play an important role in
preventing climate
change in that trees remove large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
The destruction of forests will greatly
reduce the
biodiversity of the planet. Trees also prevent soil erosion, flooding, and
desertification (Ehrhardt-Martinez 1998).
bad things about deforestation
Second, deforestation may result in a
number of social problems such as eradication of indigenous culture, spreading
of disease, and an increase of rural violence (Homer-Dixon 1999). Third,
deforestation is largely the result of human activities. Some of these activities
include logging, mining, cattle ranching, and export agriculture Clearing of forests by growing populations and the building of
infrastructure also impact deforestation (Rudel and Roper 1997). (Bryant
Such findings led Bradshaw (1987:235) to point out
that researchers can avoid “current theoretical and ideological particularism”
by including
predictors from competing perspectives in the same model
“without giving logical priority to either paradigm.”
Consequently, recent efforts to understand deforestation can be criticized
for
being eclectic and for failing to pursue synthesis (but see Burns, Kick, and
Davis 2003 and Burns et al. 1994 as notable exceptions). Therefore, the present
study seeks to (1) construct theoretically informed models that build upon
existing cross-national research on deforestation and (2) specify the contexts
in which political factors that are “internal” to a nation interact with econo-
mic factors that are “external” to a nation.1
Therefore, the major goal of this research relates not only to the importance of taking into account competing theoretical explanations (i.e., modernization and world-systems theories) in a study of deforestation, but also identifying
the contexts in which the factors
from these apparently divergent theoretical perspectives are related to each
other in a meaningful way.
The modernization perspective argues that a unique relationship exists
between what? what is this hypothesis called?
economic development and deforestation in which deforestation
increases in early stages of development but levels off and declines as economies
mature. This hypothesis is known as the environmental Kuznets curve, named
for economist Simon Kuznets (1955) who demonstrated this type of relationship
between economic growth and income inequality.
In terms of this sectoral change, very poor nations
have limited
production functions based on primitive technologies and spiritual
attitudes toward the physical world. These
As countries begin to industrialize,
the extraction of natural resources and the building of infrastructure play central
roles in increasing
economic development (Grossman and Kruger 1995). These practices often increase deforestation because they are highly dependent upon the extraction of minerals and other natural resources such as logs and other
forest products
Accordingly, deforestation would follow a general pattern of rapid growth
during early development followed by
a leveling off during higher development
(Selden and Song 1994). A number of cross-national studies have found support
for this theoretical perspective
It has also been suggested by modernization theory that democracy may
reduce
deforestation (Li and Reuveny 2006). This is based on several factors.
The findings involving democracy and deforestation are
mixed.
democratic nations may experience
policy inaction
concerning the environment. This is the result of democratically elected leaders
having to please competing interest groups in order to win as many votes as
possible. Thus, additional research is needed to examine the link between
democracy and deforestation.
Bunker (1996, 1985) and Jorgenson
(2003) note that rich nations externalize
their consumption-based environmental
impacts onto poor nations which increases various forms of environmental
degradation in the latter.
A number of cross-national studies have found that export dependency tends to
increase
deforestation
One of the hypothesized consequences of increased
multinational corporate penetration may be
more deforestation, especially
because multinational corporations are some of the investors in export-oriented
industries such as logging, cattle ranching, mining, and oil drilling.
The production of primary products leads to immense deforestation
because
the vast majority of these exports come from cattle ranching, logging,
drilling, and mining
The removal of such regulations makes investment by foreign firms
extremely
profitable. However, deforestation often ensues because investment is
concentrated in extractive industries.
A number of cross-national studies have found support that
economic dependency relationships centering upon international lending
institutions increase deforestation
An idea that has not received much attention in the cross-
national literature is that repressive nations may
intensify the harmful effect
of exports, multinational corporations, and structural adjustment loans.
This
theoretical insight has been suggested by Ross and Trachte (1990), who argue
that the mutually beneficial relationship rests upon
the desire for development
and personal economic gain by leaders of repressive governments along
with the quest for profit by multinational corporations.
I draw upon the writing of these scholars to test the hypothesis that repression
interacts with various world-systems measures so that exports, multinational
corporations, and structural adjustment loans increase
deforestation more at
higher rather than at lower levels of repression. I hypothesize this occurs
because repressive nations create a “good business climate” for foreign invest-
ment by providing them with a variety of economic incentives and regulatory
concessions.
Repressive nations create a “good business climate” for multinational
corporations through
a variety of financial incentives and regulatory concessions
that aim to lower costs for foreign investors (London and Ross 1995). The most
notable financial incentives include “tax holidays” (Leonard 1988). Regulatory
concessions include exemptions on log harvest quotas, clear cutting, logging
protected species, and logging in protected areas
As a result of these economic incentives and regulatory concessions,
Indonesia became a world leader in
tropical timber exports while deforestation
skyrocketed (Hurst 1990).
Repressive nations also create a “good business climate” for multinational
corporations by not only providing economic incentives and regulatory con-
cessions but also by
promoting labor mobility and imposing political stability. This involves the outlawing of strikes, protests, and
unions. It also includes firing workers at will (Peet 2003). This aspect of a
“good business climate” not only has the potential to minimize both the power
and prevalence of workers but also social movements, non-governmental
organizations, and concerned citizens (Shandra 2007).
example of how the indonesian law was roppressive
The law also permitted the government to ban any
non-governmental organization without explanation (Hurst 1990).
A similar example involves the struggle of the Penan with logging companies
in Malaysia. Since the 1980s, the Penan have been engaged in protest activities
(e.g., blockading of logging roads and sabotaging of logging equipment) to
regain control over local forests (Hurst 1990). Bryant and Bailey (1997:182)
write, “The response of the Malaysian government to these activities has
been to
repress the dissent, but this move only prompted the intervention of
international non-governmental organizations including Sahabat Alam Malaysia
and the World Rainforest Movement on the side of the Penan.”
As a result of the intervention by the
non-governmental organizations, however, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir
ordered
a crackdown on social movement activity (Hurst 1990). This effort
included press censorship, crackdowns on protests, and the arrest of key Penan
leaders (Bryant and Bailey 1997). At the same time, the government pushed for
more logging in Sarawak (Hurst 1990).
In sum, I hypothesize that repression within a nation should interact with
various world-systems measures, thereby increasing deforestation more at
higher rather than at lower levels of repression. This is because repressive
nations create a “good business climate” for foreign investment by boosting
exports, reducing taxes, diminishing protections, and producing powerlessness.
However, it has long been argued
that demographic factors, especially population growth, are a prominent cause
of
environmental degradation.
I have described how
a variety of economic and political factors are
hypothesized to contribute to deforestation.
This focus on environ-
mental resource shortages has been extended in recent years to argue that
population size is also a major cause of environmental degradation
The general argument holds that
increases in population growth
drive basic extraction, consumption, and production activities (Pimentel and
Pimentel 1999).
