RC/CR Flashcards
To nail the RC/CR section 100%
OCTAAVE - O (Opinion)
Important points about opinion?
- You must try to find the opinion (personal opinion) of the author or the people whom the author supports.
- The author of a passage will have either no opinion or some tangible opinion.
- If the author has an opinion, s/he may have a strong opinion or a mild opinion.
- BUT the author can’t have wavering | changing | uncertain | ambivalent opinions.
- Opinions can be challenged. Opinions can be supported, as well.
On the contrary FACTS can’t be challenged. Facts can’t be supported, either.
The opinions that are just mentioned in the passage but are not supported by
the author don’t count in this scenario.
What constitutes an opinion?
Future | Feeling | Uncertainty | Debatability | Challengeability
- Prediction … (may | might | could | will | would | likely etc.) – FUTURE
- Suggestion … (should | propose | recommend | make a case for | ‘would need to do’ | would be
wise to follow etc. | must | ought to etc.) – FEELING / FUTURE - Position | stand | stance | viewpoint | belief – FEELING / DEBATABILITY
- Criticism and praise | Agreement and disagreement – FEELING
- Conclusion drawn | Judgment reached | Hypothesis | Claim – DEBATABILITY / UNCERTAINTY
If the question is asking about the primary purpose, then what should be your answer?
The answer to the primary purpose and main idea of a passage is almost a restatement of the
opinion of the passage.
The first verb in a primary purpose question belongs to the author (like in the question choices, the first verb given in the sentence should belong to the author).
If not, the
primary purpose is most likely going to be found at the Key Contradiction Location.
OCTAAVE - C (Contradiction)
Watch out for contradiction words, these are imporant as -
- the opinion might change / are introduced at these locations
- there is a general / inference question from these locations.
Common contradiction words
Alternatively, although, apart from, but, by contrast, contrary to, conversely, despite, even though,
however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand,
regardless, still, then again, yet
OCTAAVE - T (Tone) / Voice of the passage
The tone is that intangible sentiment that cuts across the entire passage as one unified theme, as one
unified mood.
Tone are of four types -
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Neutral
4. Balanced
Explain about +ve tone
✓ Positive: Praise | Optimism
When the author is praising or saying good thing about something.
Be sure to distinguish between facts and praise. Facts are just facts stated by the author.
Explain about -ve tone
✓ Negative: Criticism | Pessimism
o In a criticism passage, always ask:
whether it is criticism only or also a suggestion. In many cases there is no suggestion in such passages. This can save a lot of time while marking the correct answers.
In some cases, where there are both criticism and suggestion, the suggestion must be part of the correct answer choice in primary purpose / main idea type question. The criticism isn’t the crux in such cases.
Explain about neutral tone
✓ Neutral: The tone is neither positive (no praise) nor negative (no criticism).
Think of neutral tone as NEWS (as news should ideally be)
Majory when facts are stated by the author.
In neutral tone, the author may or not have a personal opinion. But in all the other tone, the author must have an opinion.
Explain about balanced tone (ACE)
✓ Balanced: Both positives and negatives of a situation are discussed. It is essentially ‘pros-and-cons’ analysis. An implied opinion is always there in such a passage even if there is no explicit opinion.
o If the tone is balanced, one of the three words will surely be part of the correct answer choice:
Assess or Critique or Evaluate (ACE).
Balanced tone is like REVIEW.
Here, the author must have an opinion, both +ve and -ve (no matter if it’s 1 positive and 10 negatives or vice versa).
The opinions should be about the same thing by the same person (author).
Can tone be neutral if the passage has an opinion?
Yes,
“The company should spend more on latest
technology.” … This suggestion is clearly an opinion, but the tone is still neutral.
Tricky Word -
Little
It means hardly any, no, or none … and hence it has a negative meaning.
For example:
✓ There is little hope of our team’s victory now. Means NO hope or hardly any hope.
✓ He showed little concern for his niece. Means NO concern or hardly any concern.
✓ He showed little interest in Chemistry. Means NO interest or hardly any interest.
Tricky Word -
A little
It means some or somewhat … and hence it has positive meaning.
For example:
✓ A little planning could have saved us from the disaster. Means some planning.
✓ There is a little hope of his recovery from the disease. Means some hope.
Tricky Word -
Few
It means hardly any or no one. Therefore, it has negative meaning.
For example:
✓ Few people speak the truth today. Means NO ONE or hardly any
✓ Few people can keep a secret. Means NO ONE or hardly any
Tricky Word -
A Few
It means ‘some’ as opposed to ‘none’, and hence it has positive meaning.
For example:
✓ A few words spoken politely will convince the boss. Means some words
✓ A few people have responded to the call for charity. Means some people
Tricky Word -
Critique
doesn’t mean criticize. It simply means to weigh the pros and cons of something.
A movie critic (n – the person) who critiques (v – the action) a movie can give a five-star or one-star reviews both. Whatever the critic presents [a text / a video etc.] is called the critique.
Tricky Word -
Dispassionate / Disinterested
means unbiased, objective, impartial, scientific, neutral
Tricky Word -
Qualify / Qualified
means to limit something, to express reservations (e.g., to qualify one’s comments with some caution, to qualify one’s support towards something)
means limited, with some reservations, not entirely, not complete
Tricky Word -
Unqualified
means complete, total, full, without any conditions
OCTAAVE - A (Avoid)
Largely avoid a few answer choices are never likely to be the answer.
- Superlatives (the third degrees of adjectives): best, latest, most, worst etc.
-
Specific to general (if the passage mentions something specific, the choices that generalize that information are almost always wrong).
Exmaple - the passage talks about lions, then it will be wrong to mark an answer that generalizes lions to mammals or animals etc. - Extreme words (Always, Never, All, None, Only, Unique, Everyone, No one, Must, Impossible, The first, Each, Every, Totally).
- Answers that make an unwarranted prediction.
-
Politically incorrect language / something that can arouse a controversy (offensive to a group,
region, religion, gender, race, nation etc.). - Very strong, emotional language (dismiss, champion, radicalize, castigate, eulogize etc.).
Unless given verbatim, these answers are almost always wrong.
OCTAAVE - V (Verify)
It means ‘CAN YOU GO BACK AND VERIFY / JUSTIFY (as if putting your finger on it) why the wrong
answers are wrong?’
If not, the option choice must be wrong.
Remember, we have to verify / justify for the wrong answers, not the correct ones.
OCTAAVE - E (Eliminate)
Don’t be fixated on an answer choice if it seems attractive.
Follow elimination of wrong ones
rather than the selection of the “right” one.
Some people believe …
These are special cues, how?
One of the most frequently used constructions is to raise a viewpoint and then disagree with it. This efficiently raises two opposing views in a passage. These constructs are recognizable because they often begin with the phrase, “Some people claim…”
**Examples - **
“Some people propose…” / “Many people believe…” / “Some people argue that…” / “Some critics claim…”
/ “Some critics maintain…” / “Some scientists believe… / “It is widely believed” / “Most people believe” / “It was / has been widely believed” / “It has been assumed / claimed”
All these imply that the author is likely to challenge whatever is said by others (not compulsory, though).
Some options that are rarely correct in RC (read them once)
Resolve (rarely correct) / Reconcile (rarely correct) Resolve a debate (rarely correct) / Resolve a contradiction (rarely correct) / Resolve an inconsistency (rarely correct) / Resolve a paradox (rarely correct) / Reconcile opposing viewpoints (rarely correct) / Present evidence (rarely correct) / provide evidence (rarely correct) / Outline (rarely correct) / Chronology (rarely correct) / Bullet points (rarely correct) / Mathematical answers (rarely correct) / Define (rarely correct) / Explore (rarely correct)
Criticism + Suggestion?
Then the primay purpose / main idea is?
In all those passages that contain both criticism and suggestion, the suggestion must be captured in the primary purpose / main idea answer, even if the criticism isn’t captured.
“Challenges the statement that ancient greeks viewed the world in concrete terms”
Can this be correct?
This can never be correct, because you or no one can ever challenge what someone used to believe / view about something.
“It resolves an apparent contradiction in…”
Can this be correct?
This can never be correct since author never resolves anything.
Resolving means two people have different and contradicting views and author came and made them agree with each other.
CR Question - Number Percent Flaw?
If the word “percent / percentage” is present in any CR question, the correct answer must be mathematically justifiable (after percentage calculations).
No matter how tempting any other answer seems, unless it can be justified by percentage calculations, it is not the right answer.
Matlab percent increase doesn’t number increase. You can change the base and easily manipulate it, see image.
Dont’ eliminate, but rather reach to the correct answer.
Original: If X then Y
- Mistaken Reversal: If Y, then X (invalid)
- Mistaken Negation: If X not, then Y not (invalid)
- Contrapositive: If Y not, then X not (valid)
- X only if Y (valid)
- Only Y is X (valid)
- Unless Y, then X not (valid)
- All X is Y (valid)
- Any X is Y (valid)
- X is a subset of Y (valid)
- To be X / for X to happen, Y is a must.
- Y is required for X
- Y is a necessary condition for X
- X is a sufficient condition for Y
Read the image carefully -
CR Question Type - Most / some etc.
(for inference questions)
Approach:
In such questions (applicable only in inference questions), the** lines in the passage with strong words (all, none, if-then conditionals, most) should be checked first**, and
the options with mild words (some, few) should be checked first;
milder options are more likely to be correct than the stronger options.
All ≡ None ≡ if-then (conditional) – strongest (stronger than most)
Most – stronger than the milder words such as some / few
Ans - E
“present evidence” in primary purpose..
is 90% wrong, so you can take it in backseat for the timebeing.
Conditional Reasoning (with arrow showcase) (review)
You have to make arrows and solve using the formula. Like x -> y, or
if in the passage given as - “Unless y then x”, so Y(not) -> X, Unless is “if not”.
How to solve an inference question?
(review)
Eliminate wrong answers. NEVER, EVER, try to justify why the right answer is right. Don’t be fixated on understanding WHY the right answer is right.
Your entire focus should be on why the wrong answers are wrong.
- An inference follows only from the facts given. No outside knowledge is required.
- An inference need not be mind-blowing. Sometimes it will be quite unappealing: simple and even obvious.
- An inference may come from a single fact, or it may require combining multiple facts. It may not be necessary to take into account all the facts given in the stimulus.
The answers which are correct should be 100% correct / 100% not correct (if that is asked), maybe answers are wrong.
Number / Percentage Inference Concepts
Premise: There are a lot more boys in this year’s class than there were in last year’s
class.
Conclusion: The girls will constitute a smaller proportion of this year’s class.
In this case, notice that the premise is about actual numbers, and the conclusion is about a proportion. This leads to a mismatch. We know nothing about the number of girls in this year’s class―perhaps it has increased too, even more than the number of boys. In that case, the conclusion about the proportion could be incorrect.
Consider the statement: If A happens, then B happens.
Then, ?
Given: If A, then B
Wrong: If B, then A
Wrong: If not A, then not B
Correct: If not B, then not A
For example:
If I am a guitarist, then I am a musician** (If A, then B).**
This is a valid formal logical statement because:
Consider this:
If I am a musician, then I am a guitarist (If B, then A).
This is invalid. Clearly, a musician can play any number of instruments, and, while the
guitar may be a common one, we cannot say that knowing someone is a musician is
sufficient to establish that he or she is a guitarist.
Consider this:
If I am not a guitarist, then I am not a musician. (If NOT A, then NOT B).
This is also invalid. Again, a musician can play any number of instruments, and knowing
that someone is not a guitarist is clearly not sufficient to establish that he or she is not a
musician.
Consider this:
If I am not a musician, I am not a guitarist. **(If NOT B, then NOT A). **
This is called contra-positive.
This is valid. If it is necessarily true that someone is a musician given that he or she is a
guitarist, it follows logically that it is necessarily true that he or she is not a guitarist given that he or she is not a musician. The idea is that the category musician subsumes the category of guitarist. A guitarist, by definition, falls under the category of musician, so someone who does not fall under the category of musician at all must not be a guitarist.
Levels of Certainity - (most concrete to last) (review)
- UnqualifiedAssertions (e.g., Bob is an attorney orMonday will be a rainy day)
- Conditional Statements (e.g., If the company hopes to meet its budget, then it
must cut travel costs or McLaren will lose the election unless the county sees
record voter turnout) - Statements with most—This means more than half but could include all (e.g., Most of Company Y’s employees are college graduates or A majority of the respondents preferred the newlogo).
- Statement with some or few—This means anywhere from one to all, just not zero
(e.g., Some architects are painters). - Some means 0% < some < 100%
- Many means more than 1
- Several means more than 2
- Few means almost zero … Few > 0%
- A few means at least some … 0% < A few < 100%
- Often is loosely defined … can be <50% or >50%
- More often than not means >50%
- Majority means >50%
- Most means >50%
Conclusion Cues (review)
So, Thus, Therefore, Thereby, Consequently, Clearly, As a result, For this reason, This demonstrates that, They conclude that, Hence, Accordingly, It must be that, It shows that, It follows that, It is likely that
Presmise Cues (review)
So, Thus, Therefore, Thereby, Consequently, Clearly, As a result, For this reason, This demonstrates that, They conclude that, Hence, Accordingly, It must be that, It shows that, It follows that, It is likely that
Contradiction Cues (review)
But, However, Nonetheless, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding, Even so, Despite, Rather, Yet, On the other hand, Admittedly, In contrast, By contrast, Contrary to, Although, Even though, Still, Whereas, In spite of, After all, Alternatively, Apart from, Conversely, Regardless, Then again, Unfortunately, Ironically etc.
A special cue: Some people believe
One of the most frequently used constructions is to raise a viewpoint
at the beginning of the stimulus and then disagree with it immediately thereafter. This efficiently raises two opposing views in a very short paragraph. These stimuli are recognizable because they often begin with the phrase, “Some people claim…”
In RC passages, regarding scientific experiments and the options with “confirm”
We never do scientific experiment to confirm. We do it to get answer - true / false.
Not to confirm.
Question Type: Resolve a Paradox
Structure -
1. No Conclusion
2. Language of Contradiction (But, However, Yet, Although…)
3. Two sides presented (both has to be resolved)
4. Eliminate Out of scope choices.
5. Choices are takes as TRUE, no matter how absurd.
the correct answer will contain a new fact (F3), that will resolve the contradiction without challenging the two facts given in the argument.
Question Type: Weaken
All weaken questions will have either a FACT-CONCLUSION or a FACT-REASON
(A causes B) relationship.
We can never negate a fact. We can negate only the conclusion or the reason.
Question Type: Strengthen
All strengthen questions will have either a FACT-CONCLUSION or a FACT-REASON (A causes B)relationship.
We can never strengthen a fact. We can strengthen only the conclusion or the reason byproviding some extra facts.
Question Type: Evaluate
- Identify the conclusion
- Take the extremes of the options, like on one side the option should weaken the conclustion and another side, it should strengthen the conclusion.
- If the option does both, or by answers that question you can do both, then that is the correct option.
Question Type: Boldface (review carefully)
Question Type: Assumption
- Should be a new piece of information. Don’t take anything that is already inferred from the passage.
- If you negate that, then the whole argument should fall.
