Raptor Essentials

Question 1

What TWO cardinal rules can you apply to make raptor identification easier?

Answer 1

1. Identify to which broad group it belongs first; and then narrow it down from there
2. Find three or more clues; don’t fixate on any singular trait

BONUS: And in situations where you’re looking at a sky bustling with raptors (such as during migration), focus on identifying one bird at a time, rather than getting overwhelmed.

That said, raptors seldom gather together in large groups so you won’t often be faced with this kind of situation.

Question 2

When observing raptors, we try to look for THREE clues to support an ID. What are the SEVEN “clue categories” in which this information can be found?

Actually, this tactic applies to identifying ANY bird in the field.

Answer 2

1. Size - how big is the bird relative to widespread species like American crows or Canada geese?
2. Shape - how long, broad, or prominent are the wings, tail, and head relative to the body?
3. Color patterns - what is the distribution of light and dark on the wing, head, tail, and body?
4. Markings - are there any noticable patches, streaks, or barring anywhere on the bird?
5. Behavior - what are the bird’s ideosyncracies, flight style, and hunting technique?
6. Habitat - where is the bird seen? In a desert, urban area, forest, open grassland, or road side?
7. Calls - What sound does the bird make?

Question 3

What are the THREE most important clues for identifying raptors?

Answer 3

1. Shape
2. Behavior
3. Habitat

It’s not that size, markings, patterns, or calls are not important; they too provide valuable clues. But shape, behavior, and habitat convey the MOST information within the shortest amount of time, allowing us to very quickly discern the subgroup to which a raptor belongs. From there, it is a matter of deciding between a few species, rather than a few dozen species.

Question 4

What are the SEVEN sub-groups of raptors in North America?

Answer 4

1. Vultures
2. Eagles
3. Buteos
4. Accipiters
5. Kites
6. Falcons
7. “The Misfits”

These sub-groups aren’t strictly divided along lines of taxonomy (relation). Rather, they have been arranged according to shape.

The shape of a bird is one of the first things you notice about it, which will help you quickly discern into which subgroup it belongs. Once you know a raptor’s subgroup, your choice becomes narrowed down to just a handful of birds.

Question 5

What is meant by the term “fingers” in raptor anatomy?

Answer 5

The elongated primary feathers that extend from the end of the wing.

Also called “emarginated primaries”

Bald Eagle (adult)

Photo by Paul Danese

The “fingers” allow air to pass through the end of the wings, which adds extra lift to their flight, while reducing drag. This is important for large, heavy raptors that spend a lot of time in the air soaring, searching for food, like vultures and eagles.

You can consider emarginated primaries a unique flight optimization that reduces the effort it takes to soar, thereby allowing raptors to conserve energy.

Question 6

How can you deduce the relative size of a raptor when there aren’t any other raptors around to compare it to?

Answer 6

Compare it to the size of a common “yardstick” bird, like an American Crow or Canada Goose.

An American Crow pesters a (much larger) juvenile American Bald Eagle

Photo from Wikipedia Commons

Most raptors are somewhere between the size of an American Crow and Canada Goose. A Cooper’s Hawk, for example, is about the same size as an American Crow (although females are larger).

Sharp-shinned Hawk, which look very similar to Cooper’s Hawk, are smaller than an American Crow; about the size of a Blue Jay. Understanding this fact will help you tell the difference between the two in the field, which illustrates the important role that relative size plays in raptor ID.

American Crow and Canada Geese are very common so even if there isn’t one in the field for direct comparison, chances are you’ll have a rough estimation of their size in your working memory.

Question 7

What FOUR key aspects of shape are most useful to note when you’re looking at a raptor?

Answer 7

1. Wing shape
2. Tail shape
3. Proportions
4. Perched silhouette

Osprey wing (top left), Swallow-tailed Kite (top right), Swainson's Hawk (bottom left), Osprey (bottom right)

All raptors have short, hooked bills, strong wings, and moderately long legs. Wing and tail shape, on the other hand, show a lot of diversity between the raptor subgroups, which is why they provide helpful clues for identification.

The proportions—relationship between wing, body, head, and tail size and length—are also useful, as is the silhouette of the bird when perched on a power line or tree branch.

Question 8

What are SIX useful descriptors for wing shapes in raptors?

Answer 8

1. Rounded
2. Pointed
3. Broad
4. Narrow
5. Short
6. Long

• Rounded looks somewhat like a hand; with 4-5 feathers extending out like fingers.
• Pointed is where one feather clearly stands out as the longest.
• Broad and narrow refer to the width of the wing from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
• Short and long refer to the length of the wing from the proximal end (closest to the body) to the distal end of the wing (furthest from the body).

Question 9

What is the difference between emarginated and closed wings?

Answer 9

• Emarginated wings are rounded, with clearly defined “fingers”.
• Closed wings are pointed, without clearly defined “fingers”.

The emarginated wing of a Golden Eagle compared to the closed wing of a Peregrine Falcon

Question 10

What caveat should you take stock of when assessing wing shape?

Answer 10

Wing shape can change quite dramatically depending on how the bird is flying.

For example, when a hawk flies fast, it bends its wings back and the previously visible rounded wing tips can appear more pointed.

Question 11

What are SIX useful descriptors for tail shapes in raptors?

Answer 11

1. Long
2. Short
3. Notched
4. Square
5. Rounded
6. Pointed

Just remember that, similar to wing shape, tail shape changes depending on whether the feathers are fanned out or not.

Question 12

True or false?

A square tail can look rounded when fanned out.

Answer 12

True

When spread out, a Cooper’s Hawk’s tail appears rounded but when furled, it look more square.

Question 13

What do we mean when we discuss the proportions of a raptor?

Answer 13

The size relationship between the wings, body, and tail.

• Red-tailed Hawk have moderately-long wings and short tails relative to their head and body.
• Cooper’s Hawk have short wings and a long tail relative to their head and body.
• American Bald Eagle have long wings and a short tail relative to their head and body.

By paying attention to raptors’ proportions, we visually capture clues that can help us narrow them down into their subgroups and perhaps even further into their species.

Question 14

Describe the size proportions of this Golden Eagle using the descriptors mentioned in earlier flashcards.

Divide your descriptors between the wing and tail shape characteristics.

Photo by Giles Laurent

Answer 14

The wings are very long, broad, and rounded with emarginated tips.

The tail is short and rounded.

Question 15

Describe the size proportions of this American Kestrel.

Divide your descriptors between the wing and tail shape characteristics.

Photo by Charles J. Sharp

Answer 15

The wings are long and narrow, with pointed tips and little emargination.

The tail is long and notched.

Question 16

Describe the size proportions of this Northern Harrier.

Divide your descriptors between the wing and tail shape characteristics.

Photo by Wildreturn

Answer 16

The wings are long and medium width. The emarginated tips are visible but much more pointed because the wing is bent back.

The tail is long and notched.

Question 17

What do we mean when we discuss the posture of a raptor?

Answer 17

The way the bird holds itself when perched.

Juvenile Cooper's Hawk (note the upright posture)

Image Source: Rhododendrites

Most raptors perch in an upright position compared with other birds, which perch with their bodies at a 45 degree angle.

BUT there are some exceptions to this upright posture that can provide helpful clues for ID.

Question 18

Which TWO raptors don’t typically have an upright posture when perched?

Answer 18

1. Osprey
2. Turkey Vulture

Osprey typically perch at a 45-degree angle, rather than upright.

Image source: Wikipedia Commons

These two birds perch with their bodies held at more of a 45 degree angle.

Question 19

When a raptor is perched, what important clue relating to wing and tail length should you look for?

Answer 19

The length of tail that sticks out from underneath the folded wings.

Sharp-shinned Hawk (left) and Merlin (right)

(Image source: Wikipedia Commons and Iwolfartist respectively.)

For example, Sharp-shinned Hawk and Merlin are two similarly-sized, similar-looking bird-eating hawks that can be difficult to tell apart, especially in flight.

When perched, however, the Sharp-shinned Hawk’s much shorter wings leave much of the long tail exposed, while the Merlin’s long wings cover most of the tail, leaving only a short segment exposed. This clue can help you tell the two species apart.

Question 20

What features of a raptor’s plumage can create patterns that are very important for identification?

Answer 20

The presence and location of white and dark (patches) on its body, such as the rump, wings, tail, and head.

Northern Harrier (female) showing white rump in flight

Photo by B.K. Leach

The adult Bald Eagle is another obvious expression of how white on a bird can help you make a confident ID! (It has a bold white head and tail.)

Question 21

Name the parts of the wing marked in color on this Red-tailed Hawk

Image credit: Susan T. Cook

Answer 21

The primary and secondary feathers make up a raptor’s flight feathers, while the underwing coverts and patagium make up a raptor’s wing linings.

Understanding the different parts of the wings will help you look for color patterns and markings, and have the vocabulary to distinguish between them when making an ID.

Ask yourself: What color are the flight feathers and what color are the wing linings? Are they the same throughout or do they contrast with each other?

Question 22

What is the most useful marking to look for when identifying a raptor?

Answer 22

Barring

Which can be on the tail (Cooper’s Hawk), chest (Red-shouldered Hawk), or wings (Peregrin Falcon).

Question 23

What is the difference between barring and streaking?

Answer 23

Barring refers to markings that run horizonally across a raptor’s chest or tail, while streaking refers to markings that run vertically down a raptor’s chest.

Interestingly, some raptors like Peregrine Falcons and Red-Shouldered Hawks have streaking when they’re juveniles, which then become barring when they mature. So the presence of barring and streaking in certain species can also tell you about their age.

Question 24

Name the anatomical parts on this Peregrine Falcon.

Answer 24

Photo by Mykola Swarnyk

Question 25

Name the **anatomical parts** on this Red-tailed Hawk.

Answer 25

## Footnote Photo by [Susan T. Cook](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red-tailed_Hawk_(50903444797).jpg)

Question 26

Why are **habitat and range** important factors to take into account when identifying raptors?

Answer 26

Raptors tend to be **habitat specialists**, so *where* you see them provides valuable clues to their identity.

Question 27

What are the **FIVE overarching habitat types** you will find raptors in?

Answer 27

1. Open country 2. Forests 3. Wetlands 4. Deserts 5. Urban areas ## Footnote Each of these habitats is preferred by certain raptors, although many raptors can be found in a mix of these habitats, too. For example: Red-tailed Hawk can be found in just about all of them!

Question 28

What are some **examples** of raptors that prefer **open country** habitats? ## Footnote Open country habitats include farmlands, prairies, grasslands, roadsides, and marshes.

Answer 28

1. Red-tailed Hawk 2. Ferruginous Hawk 3. Swainson's Hawk 4. Gyrfalcon 5. American Kestrel 6. Golden Eagle ## Footnote The Red-tail Hawk and Swainson's Hawk are the most common **pole-perching raptors** in North America. There are many other raptors that can can be found in open country but these are just some examples.

Question 29

What are some **examples** of raptors that prefer **forested** habitats? ## Footnote Some are almost never found outside of these environments, except for during migration.

Answer 29

1. Broad-winged Hawk 2. Red-shouldered Hawk 3. Gray Hawk 4. Sharp-shinned Hawk 5. Cooper's Hawk 6. Northern Goshawk ## Footnote Most of these birds have relatively **short, broad wings** and **long rudder-like tails** for manoevering through heavily-treed environments, although this is most pronounced in the Accipiters (Sharp-shinned Hawk, Cooper's Hawk, and Northern Goshawk).

Question 30

What are some **examples** of raptors that prefer **wetlands** habitats?

Answer 30

1. Bald Eagle 2. Osprey 3. Northern Harrier 4. Hook-billed Kite 5. Snail Kite ## Footnote Bald Eagle and Osprey eat fish; Hook-billed and Snail Kites eat water snails; and Northern Harrier hunt for waterfowl over marshes.

Question 31

What are some **examples** of raptors that prefer **desert** habitats?

Answer 31

1. Golden Eagle 2. Turkey Vulture 3. Harris's Hawk 4. Red-tailed Hawk 5. Zone-tailed Hawk 6. Prairie Falcon ## Footnote Harris's Hawk and Zone-tailed Hawk are **true desert specialists,** while Red-tailed Hawk, Turkey Vulture, and Golden Eagle can be found in a mix of other habitats. Being **habitat restricted** means that these two raptors are also **range restricted**. Again, there are other raptors that can can be found in desert country but these are just some examples.

Question 32

Give some **examples** of raptors that do well in **urban** habitats, like towns and cities.

Answer 32

1. Peregrine Falcon 2. Red-tailed Hawk 3. Cooper's Hawk 4. Merlin ## Footnote Peregrine Falcon do well in urban areas because the tall buildings and bridges they nest on mimic the cliffs that are their natural nest sites.

Question 33

What **FOUR aspects of a raptor's behaviour** can help you identify a bird?

Answer 33

1. Flight style 2. Foraging method 3. Sociability 4. Bobs & twitches

Question 34

What are the **TWO major flight styles** of raptors?

Answer 34

Soaring and direct flight ## Footnote If a raptor is riding the thermals, gliding in great circles, and hardly flapping its wings at all, then it is **soaring.** If, on the other hand, it is flying straight and fast, and flapping its wings constantly to maintain speed, then the raptor is engaged in **direct flight.** Most raptors use both flight styles but some, like the California Condor soar much more often than the others, like Sharp-shinned Hawk, which typically only soar during their migration.

Question 35

What is meant when referring to a **dihedral flight pattern?**

Answer 35

When a bird **holds its wings at an angle** to the body, creating a dihedral or V-shape. ## Footnote Photo by [Mike Baird](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turkey_Vulture_(Cathartes_aura)_-in_flight.jpg) For example, Northern Harrier and Turkey Vulture soar with their wings in a V-shape or what is referred to as a **"dihedral" shape** above their bodies. Bald Eagle and Black Vulture, on the other hand, align their wings with their bodies, creating a much more flattened profile.

Question 36

What **FIVE foraging methods** do raptors use (and can be useful for ID)?

Answer 36

1. Hover & drop 2. Perch & survey 3. Ambush & chase 4. Soar & swoop 5. Low ambush ## Footnote **Hovering** is an adaptation by raptors who dwell in grassland habitats where there aren't many tall perches. **Perching** is also done by birds of the open country where telephone poles offer the perfect vantage point to perch and survey. **Ambushing & chasing** is great for forest-dwelling raptors who rely on concealment and camoflage to opportunistically pounce on birds, oftentimes with a fierce chase involved. **Soaring & swooping** is the foraging method of choice for hunters who like a high vantage point. They then swoop down to pounce on unsuspecting prey or scavenge on a fallen creature. **Low ambush** involves flying low and slow over grassland and marsh habitats, searching for prey, and then pouncing on them unseen.

Question 37

Which **FOUR raptors** hunt by **hovering** and then swooping to catch their prey?

Answer 37

1. American Kestrel 2. White-tailed Kite 3. Osprey 4. Rough-legged Hawk ## Footnote When conditions are windy, Red-tailed Hawk will also hover, although it is more like they are surfing the wind than actually hovering the way the afore-mentioned raptors do.

Question 38

Which **FIVE species** of raptors like to **perch on telephone poles** and hunt for prey?

Answer 38

1. Red-tailed Hawk 2. Rough-legged Hawk 3. Harris's Hawk 4. Swainson's Hawk 5. American Kestrel ## Footnote All of these raptors are birds of the open country, from grasslands to desert.

Question 39

Which **FOUR species** of raptors typically **ambush and then chase** their prey?

Answer 39

The **forest-dwelling hawks**: 1. Cooper's Hawk 2. Sharp-shinned Hawk 3. Broad-winged Hawk 4. Northern Goshawk ## Footnote These raptors will ambush their prey—usually smaller birds—and then chase after them. Their relatively short, broad wings allow them to fly through thick woods, while their long tails act as powerful rudders for quick, sharp maneuverability.

Question 40

Which **FOUR species** of raptors dash after prey, **relying on sheer speed** to hunt?

Answer 40

1. Merlin 2. Gyrfalcon 3. Peregrine Falcon 4. Prairie Falcon

Question 41

What **SIX species** of raptors like to hunt by **soaring and then swooping down** on prey?

Answer 41

1. Golden Eagle 2. Zone-tailed Hawk 3. Short-tailed Hawk 4. Turkey Vulture 5. Black Vulture 6. Mississippi Kite ## Footnote Black and Turkey Vultures soar at height to look for fallen animals (or other vultures). They then swoop down to feast on the carrion. They don't catch live prey.

Question 42

What **THREE species** of raptors forage by flying low and slow over habitats like grasslands and marshes?

Answer 42

1. Northern Harrier 2. Snail Kite 3. Rough-legged Hawk ## Footnote Rough-legged Hawk also hover over the habitat and perch on telephone poles. So while some raptors tend to specialize in a certain foraging techniques (and are built accordingly), they can use multiple methods to acquire prey.

Question 43

Why is **sociability or gregariousness** a useful clue for raptor ID?

Answer 43

**Very few species** of raptors hang out in large groups of other raptors! ## Footnote Knowing which species of raptors are gregarious can help you determine what you're looking at pretty quickly.

Question 44

Most raptors are solitary or will pair up to nest. What are **THREE exceptions to this rule?**

Answer 44

1. **Vultures** scavenge and roost communally. 2. When there is an **abundant food source**, different species of raptors might congregate. 3. Some raptors **migrate** in enormous mixed flocks.

Question 45

What is meant by the term **"kettle"**, usually used during raptor migration?

Answer 45

A kettle is a **large group of raptors**—often several different species—that are **soaring, wheeling, and circling in the air**. ## Footnote An example of this "kettling" behaviour is exhibited by raptors like Swainson's Hawk, Broad-winged Hawk, and Swallow-tailed Kites, which soar in groups of dozens, if not hundreds of individuals during migration. Most raptors, however, do not do this.

Question 46

What do we mean when we talk about **bobs and twitches** in reference to bird behavior?

Answer 46

**Unique, ideosyncratic movements** that are particular to a species. ## Footnote For example, American Kestrels **bob their tails** when perched on a wire. There doesn't seem to be any apparent reason for it; it's just a unique behavior to this bird and one that can help you tell it apart from the similar-looking Merlin.

Question 47

What is the **largest flying bird** in North America?

Answer 47

California Condor ## Footnote They have impressive wingspans of up to 3 m (almost 10 ft) and weight in at an average of 9 kg (20 lbs). They are estimated to live over 60 years.