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1
Q

explain the function of lysosomes in cells

A

lysosomes contain enzymes to break down pathogens
using hydrolytic enzymes
and can break down old organelles`

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2
Q

explain why different antibodies need to be produced to give immunity to new strains

A

antibodies are specific to antigens so the variable region to the antibody is complementary to antigen

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3
Q

explain how vaccination programmes can help to contril the spread of infecctions deasieases

A

aims to vaccinate the whole population
to develop long term immunity
vaccine allows most people to have an immune response to the antigen

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4
Q

how does the oxygenator carry out functions of gas exchange?

A

oxygen moves into the blood and carbon dioxide moves from the blood by diffusion and there is a short diffusion pathway

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5
Q

difference of structure of tunica media of muscular artery and aorta in terms of function

A

tunica media of aorta has more elastic fibres and this allows the aorta to stretch during ventricular contraction

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6
Q

explain how the structure of collagen fibre provide skin with strenghth

A

covalant bonds between collagen molecules
covalent bonds are strong
overlapping molecules

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7
Q

suggest why it is important to plants that water has a high latent heat of voporisation

A

plant leaves heat up and this leads to cooling effect

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8
Q

why is it important for the control of the cardiac cycle that there is a shrt delay at the AVN after impulses have been sent out by SAN

A

atria and venticals do not contract at the same time and this allows the atria to empty compleatly

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9
Q

explain how the blood pressure changes

A

1)opening of the tricuspid valve: pressure in right ventrical becomes lower than right atrium
2)opening of pulmonary(semilunar) valve: pressure in right ventrical becomes higher than pressure in pulmonary artery
3)help flow of blood: to prevent backflow

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10
Q

what is meant by polysaccirides

A

large number of monosaccharides

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11
Q

features of nonself antigens

A

stimulate immune response
usually glycoproteins
recognized by phagocytes

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12
Q

list all the structures through which a blood clot in the left atrium must travel to reach the blood vessels supplying the brain

A

atrioventricular valve-
left ventrical
semilunar valve
aorta

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13
Q

explain why blocking a small artery in the brain leads to brain damage

A

lack of oxygen

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14
Q

explain how the primary transcript is modifyed to form mRNA

A

removal of introns

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14
Q

why is it necessary for cholride ions to enter the red blood cell as hydrocarbonate ions leave

A

it replaces the negative ion

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15
Q

explain how specialised cells in the gas exchange syestem prevent harmful microscopic particles from reaching the alvoli

A

production of mucus by goblet cells
mucus is sticky and traps the dust particles
the cilia waft the mucus away

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16
Q

describe how the process of translation results in the formation of a polypeptide

A

-two codons at a time are exposed to the large subunit
-each tRNA brings a specific amino acid
-a tRNA anticodon binds to the mRNA codon
-complementary base pairing occurs through hydrogen bonds
-second tRNA brings another amino acid(next to the first one)
-peptide bond formation between the two amino acids

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17
Q

difference. between scanning electron micrograph and transmission electron micrograph

A

SEM- shows 3d veiws
TEM-showing 2D

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18
Q

why glucose molecules need to be cotransported with Na+ when it enters the cell through the membrane protein

A

glucose is moving agaisnt a concentration gradient
movement poward by inward movement of Na+

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19
Q

explain how microvilli increase the uptake of glucose into an intestinal epithelial cell

A

increase in surface area so more transport

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20
Q

suggest and explain the importance of mitosis by stem cells in the small intestine

A

-to replace old cells to allow tissues to function
-produce cells that are gentically identical and develop during infancy
-restore number of stem cells so there is constant supply

21
Q

outline the standard treatment that can be used for suspected cholera cases

A

-oral rehydration
-solution of water and salts like sodium

22
Q

suggest and explain why this treatment can help to prevent a larger outbreak of cholera

A

decreases recovery time
reduces diarrhoea production

23
Q

state 2 differences between sucrose and fructose, other than the number of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen atoms present

A

-sucrose is diassachrides
and a non reducing suger

24
Q

why is bird heart big

A

need more oxygen for physical activities such as wing muscles

25
Q

similarities and differences between introns and the exons of genes coding

A

similarities
-both are transcribed
differences
-exons are coding sequences
-exons join to form mRNA

26
Q

describe globular proteins

A

-3d
-soluble in water(hydrophobic R-R group interactions)
-included in metabolic reactions
-

27
Q

describe fibrous proteins

A

-do not curl up
-lie side by side to form fibres
-not water soluble
-not genrally phsiologically active
-mostly play structural roles

28
Q

two different circulations of double circulatory syestem

A

pulmonary circulation
systemic circulation

29
Q

main vein returning deoxygenated blood to the heart

A

vena cava

30
Q

type of blood vessel that connects capillaries and veins

A

venules

31
Q

carbonic acid forms?

A

hydrogen ions

32
Q

suggest how viruses can be of different shapes

A

the presence of phospholipid bilayer ensures flexibility

33
Q

one similarity and difference in virus and bacteria

A

similarity: both have DNA
difference; bacteria has looped DNA

34
Q

in mitotic cell cycle if it stops at G1, what will happen?

A

-no S phase
-no DNA replication
-cell does not increase in size
-failed to reach checkpoints

35
Q

why are there two types of drugs produced for an illness rather than 1

A

-if there is resistance to once, then the other one will kill
-less likely for mutations to occur

36
Q

what is gene mutation

A

altered nucleotides in DNA

37
Q

explain why respiratory bronchioles do not have goblet cells

A

presence of mucus can hinder airflow to alveoli bc the lumens of airways are narrow and close to alveoli

38
Q

difference in epitheilium of alvoli and bronchai

A

bronchioles have columnar cells
bronchioles are ciliated
alvoli have squamous

39
Q

functions of smooth muscles

A

allow for contraction and changes diameter

40
Q

what will happen to Vmax and Km with non competative inhibatator

A

Vmax; decreases
Km; stays the same

41
Q

actions of b-lymphocytes

A

1-pathogens invade
2-antigen presentation cell formation
3-only specific B lymphocytes has receptors with the complementary shape to antigen will be activated (clonal selection)
4-B cells will divide through mitosis (clonal expansion)
5-activated Bcells divide into plasma cells and memory cells (thelper cells release cytokines that allow blymphocytes to diffrenciate into plasma and memory cell)

42
Q

state what is meant by gene

A

i a sequence of nucleotides that forms a part of DNA molecule

43
Q

explain why blood taken from a person with an infectious disease may have a different number of white blood cells compared to blood taken from a healthy person

A

more white boood celss because
1-result of immune response
2-clonal expansion
3-increased production of phagocytes

44
Q

explain why sickle cell anemia is a disease

A

absence of good health
produces symptoms like weakness

45
Q

S phase

A

dna replication
-produces two genetically identical Dna molecule, one for each daughter cell

46
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes align at equator
-chromosomes oreintated so that sister chromatids will be shared out to daughter cellsna

47
Q

anaphase

A

centromere splits- that daughter chromasomes move to opposite poles

48
Q

suggest why daughter cells are not identical immediatly after cytokineses

A

unequal sharing of organelles

49
Q
A

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