RANDOM

Question 1

types of school refuser

Answer 1

• separation anxiety: fear of loss parental nurturance or safe home environment
• specific phobia: marked and persistent fear of objects or situations, in this case: school
• acute school refusal: first three years of good attendance before suddenly refusing to go to school.
• chronic school refusal: related with dependency, parental mental illness and lower self-esteem and sociability.

Question 2

function of school refusal

Answer 2

negative reinforcement: avoidance of a negative or disliked event (such as going to school) and the avoidance is reinforcing or rewarding
> ‘negative’ does not mean ‘unpleasant’

positive reinforcement: an action or outcome following a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely to be repeated.

Question 3

systematic desensitisation

Answer 3

reducing or eliminating certain phobias
1. learn to relax
2. encourage to employ this ability when asked to consider objects or situations of fear

Question 4

emotive imagery

Answer 4

associating fearful situations with imagined scenes which conjure up feelings of pride or amusement
> fearful situation will be associated with positive emotions and a relaxed state

Question 5

cognitive-behavioral therapy

Answer 5

aims to help patients change the way they think, feel and behave
> exploring and challenging negative thoughts and then replacing them with new understandings

Question 6

autism spectrum disorders

Answer 6

a spectrum of psychological conditions characterised by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, as well as severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behaviour

Question 7

congenital blindness

Answer 7

the condition of being born unable to see or with severe visual impairment

Question 8

chromosomal structural abnormalities

Answer 8

an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one or more chromosomes

Question 9

genetic diversity

Answer 9

the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary

Question 10

amniocentesis

Answer 10

medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and foetal infections where the foetal DNA is examined

Question 11

neuroimaging

Answer 11

either directly or indirectly imaging the structure and function/pharmacology of the brain

e.g.PET, ERP, MEG

Question 12

eye-tracking methodology

Answer 12

automated recording of eye movements
- allows precise measures of visual behavior
- can be used on babies since they can’t talk

Question 13

saccades

Answer 13

fast movements of the eye that function to shift fixation to an object of interest
> image projected to the fovea

Question 14

ADHD

Answer 14

• inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity
• no inhibitory control: ability to overcome a prepotent motor response

Question 15

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Answer 15

problems with social interaction and communication, and limited,
stereotyped and repetitive patterns of behavior

Question 16

three main theories explaining autism:

Answer 16

1. theory of mind hypothesis of autism:
   people with autism have difficulties in understanding that others have thoughts and beliefs.
2. executive function hypothesis of autism:
   autism is due to a deficit in executive functions-inhibition, planning, being mentally flexible and generating novel ideas
3. central coherence hypothesis of autism:
   autism is due to a lack of central coherence, which is reflected in the tendency to process information piece by piece rather than to integrate it

Question 17

sensory impairment
Atypical or not?

Answer 17

• certain forms of visual impairment are caused by genetic abnormalities
• children impaired by congenital blindness also show behavioral symptoms of autism
• a way of learning is lost in blind children, which ensures that they cannot learn some communication forms (writing)
  > they follow a different development path
• very different communication with parents than normal children

Question 18

Joint attention: social partners deliberately focus on a shared object in the external environment.

Answer 18

• person who wants contact requires the attention of the other person
• other person makes an appropriate behavioral response
• person follows with a response that indicates that he is aware of the other person’s attention
• they both focus attention on the object or event by exchanging smiles, vocalizations or
  verbalizations

Question 19

dual sensory impairment

Answer 19

more than 50% of children with visual impairment there is another limitation
e.g. auditory impairment
- important to learn that they have to go through the development independently.

Question 20

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model:
places individual human development into the wider context of interaction with the immediate environment, as well as the larger context

Answer 20

• microsystem: environment that the child experiences individually and directly
  e.g. own characteristics, family, friends, school
  > factors can mutually influence each other
• mesosystem: relations between different microsystems
  e.g. parents’ contact with the teacher of the school
• exosystem: settings of which the child is not directly part, but which can influence their development
  e.g. mass media and neighbours
• macrosystem: the influence of culture
  > the rise of deaf culture
• chronosystem: sociocultural events over the life course
  > changes to legislation may impact the quality of life relative to how they were say 10 or 20 years ago

Question 21

communication system

Answer 21

a means for speakers of a language to communicate with one another human language is the most complex, diverse and efficient communication.

Question 22

symbolic system

Answer 22

meaningful units of a language are symbols because they refer to things other than themselves
> there is no necessary relation between sounds and meanings different sounds, same meaning

e.g. bird, vogel (German), oiseau (French).

Question 23

rule-governed system

Answer 23

each human language is constrained by a set of rules that reflects the regularities of the language

Question 24

language is productive

Answer 24

a finite number of linguistic units and a finite number of rules are capable of yielding an infinite number of grammatical utterances.

Question 25

turn-taking

Answer 25

requires individuals to alternate between the roles of listener and speaker during a
conversation

Question 26

proto-conversations

Answer 26

when adults tend to vocalise when the infants are not vocalising, or after the infant has vocalised, which stimulates a turn-taking event.

Question 27

proto-imperative

Answer 27

infant points at object - gaze between object and adult until desired object is obtained

Question 28

proto-declarative

Answer 28

when infants use pointing or looking to direct an adult’s attention toward an object

Question 29

imitation

Answer 29

due to mirror neurons very young infants are capable of imitation - may be a means by which children learn to increase the number of turns that they take in a conversation

Question 30

initiating interactions

Answer 30

as children acquire language, their attempts to initiate interactions become more verbal and less gestural

Question 31

maintaining conversations

Answer 31

• turn-taking is important for conversation maintenance
• interrupting others disrupts the conversational flow
• add relevant information to the dialogue.

Question 32

repairing faulty conversations

Answer 32

children must learn when and how to repair conversations as
miscommunications occur

Question 33

speech segmentation

Answer 33

children must separate the speech stream into individual sounds and sound combination in order to learn the relevant sounds of their language

Question 34

motherese

Answer 34

infant-directed-speech
> makes speech segmentations easier for infants

Question 35

infants discriminate between phonemes