Radioactivity Flashcards

1
Q

What is the atom?

A

+A positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons, with the nuclear radius much smaller than that of the atom and with almost all of the mass in the nucleus.

+A whole atom is mostly empty space

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2
Q

Give the relative mass and relative charge of electrons, protons and neutrons.

A
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3
Q

Where did the idea of atoms come from?

A

+Democritus

+“The world around us is made of atoms - things that cannot be split”

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4
Q

What was the “Plum Pudding” model?

A
  1. In 1804 John Dalton agreed with Democritus that matter was made up of tiny spheres (“atoms”) that could not be broken up.
  2. He reckoned that each element was made up of a different type of “atom”
  3. Nearly 100 years later J J Thomson discovered that electrons could be removed from atoms. So Dalton’s theory was not quite right that atoms could not be broken up.
  4. Thomson suggested that atoms were spheres of positive charge with tiny negative electrons stuck in them like plums in a plum pudding.
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5
Q

What was the Rutherford scattering experiment?

[I.e Gold foil/Michelson-Morley] expermiment?

A
  1. The “plum pudding” theory did not last very long though as in 1909 Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden tried firing alpha particles at thin gold foil.
  2. Most of them went straight through, and were detected when they hit a zinc sulphide screen and gave off a tiny flash of light (a scintillation)
  3. However some were knocked a bit off course but a very small proportion (about 1 in 8000) actually seemed to bounce off the gold foil.
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6
Q

What were the implications of the Rutherford scattering experiment?

A
  1. If the plum pudding model was right then all alpha particles would just pass straight through the gold foil - but this was not the case.
  2. Rutherford realised that most of each gold atom must be empty space, but he knew atoms did have a mass.
  3. Therefore the rare event of a rebound meant that an alpha particle had run into something very dense and so he realised that the mass must be concentrated in a very tiny volume at the centre of the atom (the nucleus).
  4. The fact that some of the alpha particles bounced back meant that inside the atoms there must be a small positively charged nuclei, which repel the positive charges of the alpha particles.
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7
Q

What does Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom say?

A
  1. Most of the mass must be concentrated at the centre of the atom, and most of the atom must be empty space
  2. The nucleus must be small since very few alpha particles are deflected by it
  3. It must be positively charged to repel the positively charged alpha particles
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8
Q

What is the relative charge of an atom? Why?

A

Neutral because the number of positive charges carried by the protons in its nucleus is balanced by the number of negative charges on the electrons in the electron “energy levels” around the nucleus.

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9
Q

Who was Niels Bohr and what was his proposal?

A
  1. A Danish physicist who proposed a model of the atom that is similar to the solar system.
  2. The electrons go around the nucleus [like planets orbit around the sun] - but all electrons have their energy levels - a certain distance from the nucleus.
  3. Each energy level can hold a certain number of electrons: Level 1 [2], Level 2 [8], Level 3 [18] and level 4 [32].
  4. +When electrons abosrb [gain] energy, they go to a higher energy level
  5. +When electrons release [lose] energy they go down a level.
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10
Q

What is an isotope?

A
  1. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons
  2. They have a different number of nucleons and therefore a different mass.
  3. Usually each element only has one or two stable isotopes [e.g. Carbon 12]
  4. The other isotopes tend to be radioactive (the nucleus is unstable, so it decays and emits radiation) e.g. Carbon 14 is an unstable isotope of carbon
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11
Q

How does the nucleus of each element differ?

A

+The nucleus of each element has a characteristic postitive charge - but the elements differ in mass by having different numbers of neutrons.

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12
Q

Where do the electrons orbit the nucleus from?

A

+From different set distances from the nucleus

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13
Q

When do electrons change orbit?

A

+When there is absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation

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14
Q

What is excitation?

A

+When an electron gains energy large enough to move to the next energy level

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15
Q

What is de-excitation?

A

When an electron loses enough energy to move down to the energy level below

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16
Q

How is an emission spectrum created?

A

+It is created when an electron is de-excited and moves towards the nucleus, it gives out energy in the form of an em wave.

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17
Q

How is an absorbtion spectrum created?

A

+It is created when an electron is excited and moves away from the nucleus, and needs to take in energy from the EM spectrum.

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18
Q

What is ionisation?

A

+When an electron is excited so much that it leaves the atom.

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19
Q

How do atoms form positive ions?

A

+By losing outer electrons through ionisation

+This means there will be more protons than electrons - which results in a positive charge.

+An atom can lose more than one electron - there more electrons it loses the greater its positive charge.

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20
Q

What happens when the nucleus of an atom is unstable?

A

+When the nucleus of an atom is unstable, it tries to throw out some of the particles or energy that is making it unstable [it emits radiation].

+This radiation is very high energy and so is “ionising” to other atoms and cells.

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21
Q

What are the three types of ionising radiation that can be emitted?

A

+Alpha radiation

+Beta radiation

+Gamma radiation

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22
Q

What is background radiation?

A

+The low-level radiation that is around us all the time

23
Q

N S H

Where does background radiation come from?

A

+Radioactivity of naturally occuring unstable isoptopes which are all around us - in the air, some foods, building materials and some of the rocks under our feet.

+Radiation from space - cosmic rays. They mostly come from the sun.

+Radiation due to human activity - [eg fallout from nuclear explosions]

24
Q

How can you detect nuclear radiation?

A

Photographic film or a Geiger-Muller detector

25
Q

What is a Geiger muller tube?

A

+A glass tube with electrically conducting coating on the inside surface.

+The tube contain a special mixture of gases at very low pressure.

+There is an electrically insulated electrode in the middle.

26
Q

What happens in a Geiger muller tube?

A
  1. When ionising radiation enters the tube is causes the low pressure gas inside to form ions.
  2. This allows a pulse of current to flow from the electrode to the conducting layer which is detected by an electronic circuit.
  3. It is usually connecting to a counting circuit, keeping track of how many ionising particles or gamma rays have entered the tube.
27
Q

How can ionising radiations be detected using a photographic film?

A

Radioactivity will darken photographic film, and this effect can be used to measure how much radiation has struck the film.

28
Q

What do radioactive sources contain?

A

+Radioactive isotopes that give out radiation from the nuclei of their atoms.

29
Q

What process is entirely random?

A

Radioactivity - this means if you have 1000 unstable nuclei, you can’t say when any one of them is going to decay, or which one will decay next.

30
Q

What happens if there are lots of nuclei?

A

+You can predict how many will have decayed in a given time based on the half-life of the source.

31
Q

What is half-life?

A

The time taken for activity to decrease by half

32
Q

What is activity?

A

+The number of decays per second

33
Q

+What is becquerel?

A

Bq is the unit for activity [counts per second]

34
Q

What is an alpha particle?

A

+A helium nucleus that has a charge of +2 and a mass of +4

+It contains two protons and two neutrons

+They don’t penetrate far into materials and are stopped quickly - they can only travel a few cm in air and are aborbed by a thin sheet of paper

+Because of their size they are strongly ionising

35
Q

What are alpha, beta +, beta - and gamma rays?

A

+Ionising radiations

36
Q

What is a beta minus particle?

A

+An electron travelling at high speed - it has a charge of -1 and negligible mass.

+It is moderately ionising - it has a range in air of a few metres and are aborbed by a sheet of aluminium [3-5mm]

37
Q

What is a beta + particle?

A

+A positron with a +1 charge that is fast moving

+It is the anti-particle of the electron

+It is moderately ionising

+Positrons have a smaller range because when they hit an electron and two destroy each other and produce gamma rays - this is called anhiliation and is used in PET scanning

38
Q

+Why can’t alpha travel as quickly as beta?

A

+Because it is heavier

39
Q

Why is alpha more ionising than beta?

A

+Because it has a bigger charge

40
Q

What are nuclear equations?

A

+A way of showing radioactive decay by using element symbols

+They’re written in the form:

atom before decay > atom after decay + radiation emitted

+GOLDEN RULE: total mass and atomic numbers must be equal on both sides

41
Q

What is the process of alpha decay?

A

+When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons, so:

  • the mass number decreases by 4
  • the atomic number decreases by 2
42
Q

What are gamma rays?

A

+Waves of EM radiation released by the nucleus that carry away this energy

+They penetrate far into materials without being stopped and will travel a long distance through air

43
Q

What is the process of beta minus decay?

A

+In beta minus decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron, so:

  • the mass number doesn’t change - as it has lost a neutron but gained a proton
  • the atomic number increases by 1 - because it has one more proton
44
Q

What is the process of beta + decay?

A

+In beta + decay, a proton changes into a neutron and a positron, so:

  • the mass number doesn’t change - as it has lost a proton but gained a neutron
  • the atomic number decreases by 1 - because it has 1 less proton
45
Q

What is the process of neutron emission?

A

+When a nucleus emits a neutron:

  • the mass number decreases by 1 - as it has lost a neutron
  • the atomic number stays the same
46
Q

What do gamma rays not change?

A

+The charge or mass of the nucleus

47
Q

What are the effects of ionising radiation in the body?

A

+It can cause DNA mutations which can lead to cancer

+DNA mutations in gametes [egg and sperm] or developing babies can cause developmental abnormalities.

48
Q

What precautions can people take to keep safe when working with radioactivity?

A

+Keep your distance - use tongs and stay away when possible [eg. use robots in nuclear power station]

+Use safety clothing and equipment

49
Q

What is the function of the moderator?

A

The moderator, usually graphite or water, slows neutrons so that they can successfully collide with uranium nuclei and sustain the chain reaction

50
Q

Why does nuclear fusion not happen at low temperatures?

A

+Due to electrostatic repulsion of protons

51
Q

What is nuclear fission?

A

+The splitting of a nucleus into two smaller nuclei with the release of energy

+A nuclei can split by firing an neutron into it

52
Q

What is nuclear fusion?

A

+The joining of separate nuclei into one larger nucleus with the release of energy.

53
Q

What is irradiation?

A
  • Occurs when an object is exposed to a source radiation outside the object.
  • Can be blocked from the object with suitable shielding
  • Doesn’t cause the object to become radioactive
  • Stops as soon as the source is removed
54
Q

Contamination

A
  • Once an object is contaminated, the radiation cannot be blocked from the object
  • Occurs when the radioactive source is on or in the object
  • It can be very difficult to remove all of the contamination
  • A contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is on or in it.