Radiclisation + Resistance + NP Strength 1960-68 Flashcards
1
Q
By 1960 what was the usual fine for a pass offence
A
£5-£8 or 5-8 imprisonment weeks
2
Q
What was the percentage of African people living in Johannesburg under £20 a week
A
80%
3
Q
What was the main factor to opposition to apartheid 1960-61
A
Pass laws
4
Q
When did the ANC plan to start its mass action
A
31 March 1960
5
Q
When did PAC / Sobuwke plan to start their mass action
A
21 MARCh 1960
6
Q
Why did both the PAC and ANC plan this mass action
A
In protest of the pass laws
Hoping to cripple police and judiciary through overcrowding of arrests
7
Q
What is the ‘Vaal triangle’
A
Heavily industrialised zone
Centre of coal moaning
Within that is the township ‘sharpeville’
8
Q
How many were killed in the 1956 sharpeville bus boycott
A
15 people were killed
9
Q
A
10
Q
Why and how was sharpeville introduced by Govt.
A
Model township founded in 1942
—> more facilities e.g a clinic
11
Q
What were 3 major factors that politicised the sharpeville community
A
- 1958 10,000 arrived from the removal of another location by the GAA , little new housing available so angry new residents , rents increased
- Favoured by migrant workers from Lesotho (separate colony) , who had even less rights and were dependent on wages —> some came illegally
- PAC branch set up 1959 by Tsolo who responded quickly to March 1960 mass action plan
12
Q
How did the PAC in sharpeville plan for the mass action
A
House to house visits
Leaflets
Set up a task force that encouraged participation and threatened those who wanted to go to work
13
Q
What happened on the night of 20tj March 1960 in sharpeville
A
Youths stabbed a policeman
—> who responded with baton charges and gunfire whereby 2 protestors died
This fueled the protest even more
14
Q
How many people attended the sharpeville protest
Who did these people include?
A
5,000
PAC members , photographers , journalists , regular citizens
15
Q
How did the mood change from ‘friendly’ to ‘violent’ on the 21 March
A
Police reinforcements arrived —> armoured vehicles , machines guns , 200 white policemen with rifles (who came from outside the area + commanded by Lt Colonel Pienaar who was more aggressive)
16
Q
At the peak protest , how many attended 21 March
A
20,000 angry people
17
Q
Why were the police more aggressive during the protest
A
Knew 9 policemen had been killed at Cato manor weeks before
—> fear / anger ?
18
Q
What happened after Tsolo refused to disperse the crowd ?
A
The crowd went forward
Without warning, the police loaded there guns and opened fire on the crowd
—> 69 died and 187 wounded
19
Q
After the shooting, how did police respond
A
Witnesses accused them of tampering with evidence by placing stones where the policemen where stood
Accused of kicking and killing wounded people
20
Q
What happened in the Cape protest 21 March 1960
A
The cape
—> Kgosana and Mlokoti took over PAC branch Jan 1960
6,000 protested in Langa against wages , educational , rent , bus fares , pass laws
However , police did attempt to disperse them with batons and armoured vehicles killed 20
21
Q
What was a consequence of the cape protest 21 March
A
25 March 50% black workers on strike
27 March 95% on strike
And a crowd of 50,000 attended the funeral of those killed in Langa
22
Q
What were the external consequences of the sharpeville massacre?
A
- Sent ripples throughout the country and triggered waves of criticism overseas
—> photographs were taken and provided graphic evidence
1 April 1960 UN Security Council passed a resolution condemning Sharpeville + called for a reversal of apartheid
AAM begun in London 1960
23
Q
What were the internal consequences of sharpeville?
A
28 March ANC organised anti pass protest + mass pass-burning
ANC also organised a stay away (strike)
30 March govt, declared a state of emergency so 30,000 Africans marched in a non violent demonstration 6 miles along the main highway from Langa to Cape Town
31 March Cato manor protest trying to stop workers from going into town
24
Q
A
25
How did sharpeville show national party strength
Shown they were prepared to enforce authority and impose apartheid
26
What did the state of emergency 30 March do?
Strengthened police powers
Public meetings outlawed
Police could detain people without cause
27
How did the public safety act 1953 and state of emergency 1960 link
Arrested thousands of opposition political leaders in a widespread clampdown
—> req. no warrants under 1953 act
28
Name some of the major leaders arrested following the S of E act
Mandela
Luthuli
Joe slovo (white lawyer who was about to appear in court for families of 434 black miners who had died in a coal mine disaster)
29
What did the 8 April 1960 unlawful organisations act do?
Banned white opposition united party // any parties that threatened public order ( aimed at ANC + PAC )
30
What happened to Verwoerd 9 April 1960
Attempted assassination at
Milner park
By a white , English speaking man
Who was unhappy with the comflict in SA and was ‘unfit to stand trial’s’
31
Why were the national party and Britain at a disagreement
NP believed SA should be a republic and freed from remnants of British authority
—> little Britain could do to restrain apartheid policy anyway and Britains influence lessened
32
In the 1958 election
The national party had what % of the parliamentary seats and how much % of votes
66%
55%
33
In 1960 what was verwoerds 2 main aims
Stamp authority as a representative of hardline transvalers against cape nationalists (who supported apartheid but disagreed with aggression)
Bolstered support in Afrikaner Christian nationalist association (broederbond)
34
Who was Harold Macmillan and when did he visit SA
Conservative PM of Britain who visited South Africa in feb 1960
35
Why did macmillan visit SA
To confirm britains decision to decolonise more broadly
To celebrate African self government
To strengthen commonwealth ties
To keep African sides on side of west in the context of the cold war
36
What was macmillans intention with the wind of change speech
Attempting to steer a careful line
—> responding to verwoerds call for a republic , aware of apartheid criticisms but keen to keep SA within western mainstream
37
What 3 things did macmillan highlight in his wind of change speech
Much of progress in industry due to British investment (2/3 external investment British) —> highlighting the value of partnership
Highlighted South Africans contribution to the war and commonwealth
‘The wind of change blowing through Africa’ (acknowledging the decolonisation , African nationalism as natural + to be accepted , implied African rights to be introduced)
38
In October 1960 what % of white SA voted for a republic , what region mainly rejected this
52
British in the natal
39
When did South Africa officially become a republic
31 may 1961
40
What was some initial changes that happened when SA became a republic
President replaced queen as head of state
Rand replaced British pound
Crown replaced by state
(Not a massive effect)
41
Why was a special commonwealth conference called in March 1961 , what did verwoerd offer
To consider South Africa’s position
—> verwoerd attended and offered to remain as a republic in commonwealth (Asian / African states against this , Britain Australia supported this)
42
What was the outcome of the special commonwealth conference March 1961
Verwoerd asked for diplomatic representation for newly independent African states in pretoria
—> undiplomatic behaviour resulted in South Africa forced out the commonwealth
43
How was South Africa not entirely isolated after leaving the commonwealth ?
Britain kept pressure (colonial power in 3 territories bordering South Africa) —> bechuanaland protectorate, Swaziland , Basutoland
-> havens for SA political dissidents and routes for escape
44
How was Britain significant to anti apartheid sfrrr South Africa’s departure from commonwealth
Major destination to those fleeing south strict
AAM founded in London 1960
45
How did South Africa still have relations with the west afrrr leaving commonwealth , in context of Cold War
South African never lost a chance to emphasise its stance against communism
—> Britain and US keen to have allies against communism
46
How was South Africa not economically isolated from Britain
British companies remained the largest external investors
Gold supplies remained important for western economies
SA global supplier of uranium (crucial to nuclear weapons / power stations)
47
How did the UN try to isolate SA, how was this limited
ANC called for sanctions against apartheid 1959
—> 1962 UN passed a resolution to ban imports + exports to and from SA (voluntary)
—> 1963 UN passed resolution ADVOCATING an arms embargo against SA (1964 Wilson’s labour govt imposed it)
48
When was the state of emergency act lifted?
August 1960
49
50
51
What are some events in the 1950’s of individual African activists expressing violence
East London 1952
Durban 1959
Mpondoland 1960
52
When did the topic of armed struggle be brought up between Mandela and sisulu
1952
With violence regularly appearing in speeches
53
How was macmillans speech significant to verwoerds aims
Cemented his mind that the idea of an internal decimalisation of South Africa through bantustans or homeland policy
53
2 factors that led to armed struggle
- Banning of opposition party was a catalyst as it Made their inability to operate peacefully , made this decision urgent to go armed
- Successful armed revolutions eg Cuba 1959 recent
54
Wbat happened at the All-in African conference March 1961
- ANC advocated a national constitutional convention
—> all S.A should participate in decisions about the constitutional future
55
Who was the first party to start an armed struggle
South African communist party
56
When did the ANC join the armed struggle
June 1961
—> however some members against violence out of principle eg Luthuli
57
Who was Oliver tambo
An anc leader
Who went into exile to escape the power of South African state and spread message of armed struggle
58
Who was MK
MK (uMkhonto weSizwe)
—> an independent military group in support of the liberation movement (led by Mandela but not part of ANC) to protect ANC from further repression
59
How was communism linked to the armed struggle?
Soviet Union largest financial contributor
East Germany helped with training + education
60
Why was the 1st sabotage planned on MK for 16th Dec 1961
Public holiday ‘Dingaan’s day’ where white SA commemorated boer victory over zulu
61
When did PAC go underground , how was this easier for them
1961
Grassroot networks among migrant workers in cape was a vehicle for covert action
—> eg informal PAC cell founded working at a Jewish old age home in the city
62
What did PAC model there strategy on and why?
Mau mau in Kenya
as it instilled fear in whites.. less on strategy
63
Where did PAC establish a new headquarters as Sobuwke , Leballo and Kgosana where imprisoned / exiled
Neighbouring Lesotho
64
When was POQO formed and why
1961
Prepared to go beyond non violence
65
Who was behind Poqo and what was its main ideology
A movement among migrant workers with little central control by PAC
—> Africans ideologies and justified violence
66
Name 3 examples of a sabotage planned by Poqo
Blow up the ‘Blue train’
—> a luxury railway journey from Pretoria to Cape Town
Paarl March 1962 led to the killing of 2 whites and 5 protestors
1963 poqo cells staged notorious Mbashe Bridge killings
67
How were poqo killings documented
‘African savagery’
—> Mandela saw them as an expression of radical African nationalism without alternative
68
How many people were hung from different African political trials in 1960’s
62 Poqo
23 Mpondo rebels
9 cato manor
7 Mk
69
Why could neither ANC or PAC sustain an armed struggle
No physical base in South Africa
Little training
Little support abroad
Repressive power of state
70
What was those tried at Rivonia accused of
Recruiting fighters
Attempting to commit sabotage
Having mins with communist organisations
Soliciting money from foreign states
72
73
What is 3 key quote from Mandela a rigonia trial
‘We want equal political rights
‘The ANC is fighting … for the right to live’
‘It is an ideal I am prepared to die for’
74
What lawyer led the rivonia trial, how was he significant to them escaping death sentence
Bram Fischer
—> original sentence was the death penalty but the Afrikaner judge influenced by Mandela speech // morality of the defence // ANC leadership might be needed for negotiations
75
Where were those sentence at rivonia sent, how many were sentenced in June 1964
Robben island
8
76
Who became the leader of MK in 1965 after Zumas arrest in 1964
Joe modise
77
Why did tambo go into exile in 1960
Establish the ‘external mission’ and win international support
78
How did tambo establish this ‘external mission’ , how was it funded
- Invited to address the UN to focus on plight of political prisoners in SA (who responded with resolution calling for their release)
- Soviet Union made most financial contribution to the ANC in exile in the 1960’s
- Swedish contributions key to non military activities of ANC
79
Why was it difficult to start another opposition movement in the 1960’s?
Few active members of the African political leadership still free I SA
—> ability to influence and organised opposition became difficult
80
Where was the anti apartheid movement (AAM) founded in 1960 , what was it all about , name one key leaders
Global movement which included the Christian’s who worked in South Africa
Eg
Trevor Huddleston (served in sophiatown) who was VP of AAM 1961-81
81
Why did Christian’s from the Anglican Church support AAM
Saw apartheid as morally wrong and in conflict with Christian teaching that all were equal before God
82
Why did labour and liberal politicians support AAM,
Opposed colonialism and white rule generally
83
When did the boycott movement start and why?
1959
Focusing on south African products
—> supported by newspapers eg The guardian
84
85
What countries gave support to the AAM
Sweden
US
Canada
The Netherlands
86
Did the AAM reach widespread movement initially? How did they realise how they could grow?
Despite some success in boycotts, set up newspaper of ‘anti apartheid news’
Failed to struggle for widespread support
Through sport
87
Why was sport targeted by the AAM
It was an issue dear to white South African hearts
It was already excluded by FIFA from international football 1963
88
What was the South African non racial Olympic committee and why did it link to the AAM
Set up by Dennis Brutus 1962
Successful in persuading Olympic to exclude SA from 1964 olympics
89
How was sport segregated in South Africa?
Only white teams represented the country
Even visiting teams had to be racially segregated
90
Who was Basil D’Olivieria, what was his story
Selected for English cricket team 1968
—> born in Cape Town moved to England 1960 as he was classified as ‘coloured’
Was one of the starters for English cricket but when tour to SA proposed he was kicked off team 1968
Huge outcry , 20,000 letters of support and there were resignations from other players
Was finally selected by Vorster cancelled the tour
91
92
Who and Why was Verwoerd assassinated September 1966?
By a parliamentary messenger because he was disgusted by his racial policies
By a man named Tsafendas
93
How did South African government mask the assassination of Verwoerd
- Claimed the assassin was insanity —> schizophrenic and a tapeworm
- no mention of political motivation during trial with attorney general lying and masking evidence
94
where did South Africa’s economic recovery benefit black South Africans 1960-68
Doubled employment
African blue collar jobs rose from 75,000 to 400,000
Per capita income rose 23%
More housing in townships
95
Where did South Africans economic recovery benefit white South Africans
Still a colour bar
More white housing
25,0000 white immigrants
White income increased 50% over 10 years
White South Africans became highest standard of living in the world
96
Where did South Africa’s economic recovery benefit both black and white South Africans 1960-68
Consistent economic growth
More gold workers
Higher number of cheap housing
97
How did the bantustans develop during the years 1960-68
- 1959 Bantu self governing act
- land formerly owned by whites redistributed to Africans
- 1st self governing homeland established when transkei legislative assembly opened 1966
- economic benefits
98
How did Vorster use his police powers 1966-68
Struck fear in opposition
Eg new police HQ Johannesburg dedicated to interrogation
Terrorism act 1967 could detain without trial indefinitely / 180 days
99
How did diplomatic ties change for South Africa 1960-68?
South Africa maintained western ties eg Britain , USA but newly independent African states reluctant
Neighbouring countries all economically dependent on SA
Vorster 1966 offered trade solutions by acting pragmatically on domestic front
Organisation of African unity established —> procedures agaianst SA eg fund for liberation
100
