Radicalism 1780-1830

Question 1

Crown (constitutional monarchy)

Answer 1

Monarchy retains power which limited democracy.

Question 2

House of Commons

Answer 2

Consisted of men of substantial property (only wealthy men could be MPs as they were not paid. Virtually all were landed gentry/ relatives or depends of the peers. Only a small numbers of MPs were independent country gentlemen.

Question 3

House of Lords

Answer 3

More powerful than today and not elected– passed their titles to their eldest son. Frequently this is where the prime minister would be elected from

Question 4

Whigs

Answer 4

Questioned the power of the monarchy and defended power of the parliament. Sympathetic to reform (mostly landowners although increasing numbers came from industrial backgrounds.)

Question 5

Tories

Answer 5

They were keen to defeat power of monarchy and church of England. Protective of the churches privileges and resistant to reform.

Question 6

Radicals

Answer 6

name given to supporters of parliamentary reform in late 18th century and early 19th century.
Rights of all men to vote, catholic emancipation, freedom of speech and press although not all radicals held these votes.

Question 7

King George lll

Answer 7

Was disliked by Whigs who perceived him as favouring their Tory opponents and was the focus of scandalous tales. Criticised for the growing expenditure of the crown Estate which had to be met by parliament.

Question 8

Lord North

Answer 8

Elected for Banbury at the age of 22 in 1754.
Prime Minister in 1770 shortly after the 7 year war–when the country was in a triumphant mood and added new territories in Africa, America and Asia to the empire.
Had a good relationship with the King
Time in office was defined by the American Revolution war.

Question 9

Gordon Riots (London June 1780)

Answer 9

Began as anti catholic protests taken by north govt to reduce discrimination against Catholics but were supported by protesters of other grievances who opposed the war in america, angry with lord north or lack of representation in govt.
Crowd of 4000-60000 gathered in march to deliver petition to parliament.
Riots lasted 6 days
roman catholic chapels were destroyed, private houses broken and Bank of England attacked.
Rival powers saw them as sign of weakness
Rumours abounded that the riots were organised by french to destabilise Britain.

Question 10

1780

Answer 10

“Dunning’s motion”- in House of Commons was part of growing hostility to the Crown amongst some MPs. Motion carried, expressed concerns that the “influence of the crown has increased and ought to be diminished.

The Duke of Richmond’s parliamentary Reform Bill proposed the house of Commons and included manhood suffrage, annual parliaments and equal electoral areas.

Question 11

Representation

Answer 11

• Constituencies returned more than 1 MP.
• Allocation of MPs to different parts of the country was not updated- due to migration some MPs represented areas of tiny populations.
• MPs not paid so only wealthy landowners with sufficient property were allowed to stand. (from narrow backgrounds)
• Had to pay their own electoral expenses.
• Elections not contested in some areas so only 1 MP would stand.
• Most MPs depended upon their families or wealthy patron.

Question 12

The American & The French Revolution 1789

What was the impact of the American Revolution on Britain?

Answer 12

It proved that political reform was obtainable, and the principle of democracy could be established in written constitutions. American govt based on consent (no hereditary passage of titles), without restriction political rights ( universal suffrage, no property qualification for office).
This made more question the ‘injustice’ of paying taxes without having the vote, and rule by a monarch/ aristocratic-dominated parliament.

Question 13

What was the initial impact of the French Revolution on GB?

Answer 13

Inspired radicals in Britain that change was possible. It also showed reform could be achieved by mounting popular. In some this stimulated enthusiasm for reform e.g. the enthusiastic reception the fall of the fall of the Bastille produced in such politicians as Fox.

Question 14

Why did this changed as the French Revolution progressed?

Answer 14

The bloodshed of the terror from 1793 onwards- executing the aristocracy and the kind/queen, massacres of the revolution’s enemies allowed those opposed to the reform to portray change as dangerous. Britain at war vs France in 1793 so radical activity were seen as unpatriotic.

Question 15

Britain and her constitution: Edmund Burke and Thomas Paine

Who was Edmund Burke?

Answer 15

MP regarded as defender of constitutional settlement of 1688- he originally aligned himself with the old Whigs; he sympathised with the American colonies. But he was more conservative than new Whigs, e.g. Charles fox who welcomed the French revolution.
Burke was a strong believer in hereditary monarchy whose priority was to protect GB from dangers of democracy.

Question 16

What were Burke’s central ideas?

Answer 16

Published Reflections on the revolution in France 1790

• Revolutionary change always accompanied by violence.
• govt derives authority from custom and tradition not consent of governed.
• Liberty needs to be restrained
• Britain’s govt is ‘stable and wise’ the ideal combination of monarchy, aristocracy and the House of Commons.

Question 17

Who was Thomas Paine?

Answer 17

Famous early radical, spent 13 years in America from 1774 where he published ‘Common sense’–urged the American colonies to seek independence. By 1787 he had travelled to France where he supported French citizens in their struggle to oppose monarchic rule.

Question 18

How did Paine respond to Burke’s defence of the constitution?

Answer 18

He published ‘The Rights of Man’ as a reply to Burke and a defence of Richard Price, this became the principle text inspiring political in Britain from the 1790s onwards. Part II was published in 1792 by which time Paine had returned to France as he feared arrest in Britain for his views. He fled France in 1794 to escape the Terror, returning to the US. Both parts inspired radical reformers well in the 1800s.

Question 19

Explain the key ideas of the radical Thomas Paine?

Answer 19

• Strong belief in equality and liberty
• Society should be based on individual freedom and shared outlook of common good.
• Land should be shared or that those without land should receive payment from the govt.

Question 20

What were the key ideas of ‘The Rights of Man’?

Answer 20

• ‘Tradition’ is not always a good thing; don’t always respect and follow traditions.
• Govt should protect all citizens equally. Aristocrats and unearned wealth should not rule the country.
• Rights should be introduced to improve the lives of ordinary citizens-universal male suffrage, free education and welfare payments.

Question 21

what was the impact of ‘The Rights of Man’?

Answer 21

The book sold cheaply and became a bestseller: 200,000 copies of part II were sold within a year. No longer was political debate limited to the propertied classes– Paine had succeeded in questioning the legitimacy of GB’s political institution.

Question 22

Radicalism Grows: The London Corresponding Society

What was the LCS?

Answer 22

An organisation set up to campaign for political reform. The idea for Corresponding Societies came from Paine. The first opened in Sheffield in 1792, followed a month later by the LCS.
Aimed to write to or link with similar provincial societies.

Question 23

What changes did the LCS call for?

Answer 23

The LCS believed that

• the people of GB were not adequately represented in Parliament.
• Appointed towards the ‘oppressive taxes, injust laws, restrictions of liberty and wasting public money’.
• The LCS were actually quite moderate, limited aims.
• They emphasised their opposition to violence and anarchy.

Question 24

How successful were LCS and others in calling for reform

Answer 24

• Total membership peaked at over 3000 in 1795.
• Societies became a feature of many unrepresented towns, such as Manchester, Leeds and Edinburgh (skilled craftsmen joined).
• The societies held weekly meetings and printed pamphlets.
• In 1793, 6000 members of the public signed a petition o say they supported the resolutions of the LCS, the organisation could attract several thousands for a demonstration and plans were underway to organise a convention in Edinburgh.

Question 25

How did the government respond?

Answer 25

The initial response came from the propertied classes who formed loyalist associations (with govt backing); used anti-radical propaganda to counter the threat of the LCS by focusing upon anti-French sentiment and fear of radical change.

Question 26

Why did the governments fear increase?

Answer 26

-Growth in support for radical societies and increased organisational capacity.
- Perceived growth in unrest, partly evidence of local magistrates/ informers.
-The increased violence in France (esp execution of King Louis XVI 1793.
though there is little evidence that the LCS aimed to exploit discontent even after 1793 when economic and social strains of war became more apparent.

Question 27

Which laws were passed to counter this threat posed by the LCS?

Answer 27

• The Royal Proclamation Against Seditious Writings and Publications (1792)
  authorised govt to use spies, infiltrate radical groups and open private letters.

-The Suspension of Habeas Corpus (1794-1795)– enabled authorities to round up suspects and detain then without trial.

-The Treason Trials ( 1794)
41 radicals including Hardy, Took and Thelwall’s trials took place all three were acquitted and the others were released.– However the trials had the effect of stopping the spread of radical ideas throughout the country; certainly this contact with France was now lost.

The Two Acts
- The Treasonable Practices Act and the Seditious Meeting Act (1795)
A failed harvest, with food shortages/ high prices had increased unrest. The first act made words, either spoken to written, treasonable. Aim was to intimidate. No radical ever prosecuted under it. The latter prohibited meetings of more than 50 people without a magistrate.

-The combination Act (1799)
Prohibited trade unions and collective bargaining after a series of strikes and other political agitations by workers.

Question 28

What was the effect of this legislation

Answer 28

• By end of 1795 radicalism was silenced.
• The new powers of Pitt’s govt rarely used and fewer than 200 were convicted under then in the 1790s. Key to success was they enabled authorities to intimidate radicals- arresting leaders, silencing propaganda and frightening many away.
• Return of war with French– war broke out in 1793 and lead to restored patriotism in Britain, under which radicals increasingly viewed as traitors.
• Nonetheless, though radicalism quietened down, it did not disappear– many of its supporters and ideas endured ready to re-emerge before the end of the war against France.

Question 29

Britain’s changing situation by 1815

what were the chief complaints to have emerged by 1815?

Answer 29

• unemployment arising from Napoleonic Wars in 1815; thousands of ex soldiers and sailors now looking for work.
• New machines in factories replacing skilled workers.
• Fluctuating food prices meant many people struggling to cope.
• Taxes introduced to pay for costs of war which increased poverty levels.
• The Corn Laws kept the prices of wheat high.

As the threat of invasion lessened, radicals were no longer held back by the change of being unpatriotic.

Question 30

What was Luddism?

Answer 30

1810-11– series of attacks in the industrial areas of Notts, Yorks and Lancs- where recently installed machines were destroyed.

• carried out by skilled craftsmen who used hand-operated machinery. They feared the loss of livelihoods due to new machines and increasing use of lower paid women and children to operate the machines.
• William Horsfall who owned mills in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire was assassinated by four armed assailants.

Question 31

How did the authorities respond?

Answer 31

Thousands of troops stationed in North and in Midlands to counter the Luddites. Machine breaking made capital offence-several executions took place.

Question 32

What problems did GB face after defeat of Napoleon in 1815?

Answer 32

wars started in 1793- national debt vastly increased, industries (textiles, coal, engineering) had to adjust to loss of war orders, and many of GB’s trading partners’ economies were depressed. Unemployment was increasing as 300,000 troops returning home.

Question 33

How did the govt attempt to reduce national debt?

Answer 33

• National debt grew £861 million– instead of continuing to use income tax, the govt introduced indirect taxation on everyday items such as sugar, tea, candles. This raised the price and had a disproportionate impact on the poor.

Question 34

Why were the corn laws introduced?

Answer 34

Landowners demanded a ban on imports of foreign wheat arguing Britain needed to be self-sufficient in case of another war and to feed the rapidly growing population. They also argued this would prevent hunger and famine which was seen as a key cause of the revolution.

Stressed agriculture remained primary employer in Britain, and that hundreds of thousands of farmers and labourers derived income from the land.

Corn laws imposed tariffs on foreign wheat and effectively banned imports until price of wheat reached 80 shillings. The Corn Laws proved controversial– critics argued they protected profits of landowners whilst impoverishing lowest class.

Question 35

Radicalism Re-emerges: Press, Political Clubs and Public Meetings (the platform)

Describe the influence of John Cartwright in the early 1800s?

Answer 35

Radical agitations in the early 1800s began in the press. The ‘father’ of newspapers agitation was Major John Cartwright. Cartwright remained supporter of parliamentary reform and continued to establish links between reformers. He used newspapers to convert readers; the most well-known was William cobbett.

Question 36

Who was William Cobbett?

Answer 36

An influential radical who became an MP later (in 1832 for Oldham)– travelled around county to learn about working conditions. Cobbett was a strong critic of the govt.

He felt they abused their privileged positions and could not justify the inequality in GB.

Question 37

Describe Cobbett’s earlier career?

Answer 37

Cobbett published the weekly Political Register in 1802. Initially newspaper/ pamphlet supported the Tory govt, but Cobbett embraced reformist views after imprisonment for a campaign against flogging in the army. The WPS sold for 2nd, read by thousands.

Question 38

How did Liverpool’s govt view growth of radical press?

Answer 38

The radial press grew despite efforts of govt to prosecute people who wrote and distributed newspapers and pamphlets. Through this medium the feeling was fostered that a national movement existed.

Question 39

How did Cobbett’s influence grow?

Answer 39

The language used was adopted by wider radical movement. Cobbett used labels to attack those within the govt and governing class who he felt were responsible for suffering of the people.

His decision to publish leading articles from the political register in pamphlet form helped him escape newspaper stamp duty. Cobbett’s influence grew further in winter of 1816-17. It was a harsh winter following poor harvest and bread prices rising higher than ever, Cobbett said the solution to those suffering was parliamentary reform.

Question 40

Provide example’s of Cobbett’s labels?

Answer 40

“Placemen”- those who received incomes for the places they held in govt.

“Parasites” and “Taxeaters”– those used to describe people who held places in govt.

Frequently targeted “unproductive” and “idle” upper class in comparison to “industrious classes” who strived and starved so that the rick could live in luxury.

Question 41

What were political/ radical clubs?

Answer 41

Many of Cobbett’s readers attended meetings in pubs, chapels and cottages;

the radical club, where these people gathered to read articles and pamphlets and to discuss ideas.

This was the second form of agitation in these years.
The best known of these was The Hampden Club, founded in 1812 by John Cartwright.

Question 42

Who joined the Hampden clubs?

Answer 42

Most popular in industrial heartlands of Lancashire, Yorkshire, The Midlands and Central Scotland.

Membership was limited by fears of punishment for formal association with a ‘revolutionary’ society.

others within the middle-class were reluctant to join because they feared that such organisations could encourage revolution.

Question 43

What were their aims?

Answer 43

• To win over ‘respectable’ support for reform.
• Achieve ‘manhood suffrage’
• Abolition of the Corn Laws.

Question 44

Activities

Answer 44

• Producing pamphlets financed by their weekly subscriptions.
• 1816-1817 a campaign to collect signatures for a petition to parliament was organised–signatures collected at branch meetings and representatives were selected to attend a central meeting (convention) in London 1817.
• The clubs had to be careful of anti-sedition legislation. Meetings were public and presented as a gathering of duties intending to discuss constitutional reform.
• Nonetheless, they faced significant challenges from govt, incl infiltration by spies, and targeting of their leaders by local constables.
• In 1817, several figures in Lancashire’s Hampden Clubs (Manchester) were arrested and imprisoned for several of months before being released without charge.

Question 45

What was the ‘platform’?

Answer 45

The third form of radical agitation was the platform.
Built around the right to petition parliament and providing an opportunity to demonstrate support for reform and its highly organised nature.
Closely associated with Henry Hunt.

Question 46

Who was Henry Hunt?

Answer 46

Born to prosperity in 1773

• in 1810 he shared a prison cell with Cobbett and upon his release campaigned for manhood suffrage.
• By 1815 he became the most popular radical leader.
• In 1816 he spoke at spa Fields, London.
• In 1819 he was the speaker at St Peter’s Field (Peterloo)
• Opposed the 1832 Reform act because no vote was given to working men.

Question 47

Explain Hunt’s core beliefs

Answer 47

• Hunt’s fiery speeches made him a hero to the working class.
• Had no intention of winning the support of ‘gentlemen reformer’ and looked to huge outdoor meetings to rouse the masses.
• He did not want any riots, only by being well organised orderly and peaceful could the masses demonstrate their newfound power and discipline.
• ‘Mass platform’ massive demos collected thousands of signatures for petitions to parliament– this was irresistible pressure on Parliament. The largest meetings were held in cities like Manchester, Birmingham and London.

Question 48

Radicalism re-emerges; the events of 1816-1819; Spa Fields, Pentrich, Blanketeers, Peterloo and the six acts.

How poor harvests of 1816 lead to increase in radical activity?

Answer 48

-1816 severe weather resulted in poor harvests leading to desperate food shortages in winter of 1816/17. This exacerbated the economic hardship caused by the end of Napoleonic Wars and the impact of the corn laws on grain prices.

Question 49

What was the Spa Fields protest 1816?

Answer 49

in December 1816 huge meetings held at Spa Fields in London attended by 10,000.
Hunt was due to address the crowd and the intention to then deliver a petition to Prince Regent.
They wanted parliamentary reform, the nationalisation of land and the abolition of all taxes apart from income tax.
Carnival atmosphere with banners and bands, market stalls and slogans.

Question 50

Why did the spa fields prove controversial?

Answer 50

• Before Hunt arrived a small crowd of people rioted, breaking into a gun shop seizing weapons and marching to Tower o London.
• Riots lasted several of hours and there was looting, though by nightfall there was peace.
• Though majority of people were peaceful signing national anthem
• once Hunt arrived he called for lower taxes and reform of parliament.

Question 51

Was Hunt at least partially responsible for the violence?

Answer 51

• Hunt spoke from a window of a public house wearing a white top hat.
• He did not portray violence but urged people to sign petition which involved words “before physical force was applied”
• authorities saw this as deliberate incitement to violence. there is evidence that suggests meeting were expected to be troublesome such as Cobbett being invited bu declining invite.

Question 52

What were the effects of the Spa fields?

Answer 52

Over 700 petitions were not delivered until 1817, with some singed by thousands.

• Although a few radicals in parliament and some members of Whigs were sympathetic, most MPs were not afraid of this demonstration of popular feeling and didn’t wish to agree to significant reform such as manhood suffrage.
• Petitions were ignored or dismissed.

Question 53

How did the authorities react in 1817?

Answer 53

• After the violence 300 arrests
• one rioter was executed and 4 organisers charged with high treason.
• Case dropped after it was revealed that key witness for prosecution, John Castle, was working for the authorities as a spy.

Gag Acts.

1. Suspension of Habeas Corpus for 6 months
2. Seditious Meetings Act restricted public meetings of more than 50 people
3. Incitement to Mutiny was made a hanging offence.

The legislation was effective as Cobbett fled to US, Hampden Clubs broke up and public meetings ceased. Radicals were forced to operate underground knowing gvt used spies to infiltrate organisations.

Question 54

What was the Pentrich Uprising of june 1817?

Answer 54

200 unemployed workers began march from Pentrich in Derbyshire to Nottingham where they planned to attack castle. Armed with pikes, forks and few guns, lead by Jeremiah Brandreth, the men believed rising would start a national rebellion.

Question 55

Why did the uprising not succeed?

Answer 55

Group was infiltrated by “William Oliver” one of gvts most famous operatives appointed by Lord Sidmouth.
“Oliver” alerted the authorities to ensure troops were waiting to arrest marchers in Nottingham.

Question 56

Why did Pentrich prove so controversial?

Answer 56

• At the trial it transpired that Oliver had convinced the men to act, leading them to believe they were a part of a nationwide rebellion. Their view was publicised by the Leeds Mercury (middle-class newspaper) by Edward Baines who pursued the investigation to expose Oliver.
• Oliver disappeared and could not be called as a witness though “provocation” could not be used as a defence. All those on trial were convicted
• 3 leaders hanged and 14 were transported.

Question 57

what were the effects of these harsh sentences?

Answer 57

Lead to public outcry, supported by Whig politicians, who were keen to seize opportunity to attack Tories.

Question 58

Who were the Blanketeers?

Answer 58

• Unemployed workers whom organised a demo in Manchester in March 1817.
• Planned march to London to present petition to Prince Regent demanding relief of distress caused by state of textile industry, the restoration of Habeas Corpus and reform of parliament.
• Blanketeers connected to the riots of Spa fields, severe reaction of the authorities to these, the formal rejection by parliament of proposals for reform and to the extremely harsh econ conditions.
• Several local figures conceived the idea for the march and took it to William Benbow, a non-conformist preacher from Manchester who was a leading figure in the local hampden clubs.

Question 59

What happened when the crowds gathered?

Answer 59

• on 10th march 5000 marches gathered in Manchester with a crowd of 25,000 to cheer them. The marchers carried blanket (signified they were textile workers and to sleep in).
• Plan was to leave in groups of 10 and each carry a petition with 20 signatures to avoid accusations of illegal mass assembly.
• Gathering broken up and 27 people arrested.
• Hundreds of men who had set off were pursued by the cavalry and attacked. Some wounded, arrested and dropped out. Only one marcher made it as far as London.

Question 60

What were the effects of the actions taken by the government?

Answer 60

• marchers displayed sabre (cavalry sword) wounds and a Stockport resident shot.
• Manchester magistrates responded by revealing conspiracy claiming they uncovered a plot with 50,000 people expected to take part in plot.
• Prisoners taken to London and arrested without trial for months before release.
• Absence of any sign of uprising on the day for which it had supposedly been planned was seen as a success of the authorities actions.
• Gag acts introduced after spa fields and seditious acts introduced before the end of the month.
• In Manchester no more public meetings were held and hampden clubs disappeared.

Question 61

Describe economic situation of 1818?

Answer 61

slight improvements in trade
fall in unemployment
Habeas corpus restored
Ban on large meetings was lifted.

Question 62

Why were meetings held in St Peter’s Field in Manchester in 1819?

Answer 62

1819 four huge meetings planned as demonstration of radical, working class strength.
-August 1819 meeting scheduled to take place in st peter's field where Henry Hunt would make speech.

Question 63

What preparations by both sides prior to the meetings?

Answer 63

Local authorities concerned at prospect of large numbers of radicals gathering. Radicals clubs and political unions from across Lancashire were busily preparing for the meeting. The yeomanry were called up and professional troops were on stand-by.

Question 64

What happened during the meetings?

Answer 64

Over 60,000 people with banners and slogans such as “ Liberty and Fraternity”, “Reform or Death” and “votes for all”
-Hunt spoke and authorities became anxious and order was given to arrest Hunt.
-Yeomanry tried to reach him, but crowd closed to ranks to stop them and some yeomanry used swords to clear path.
11 people killed and 400 injured in stampede.

Question 65

Who was to blame?

Answer 65

Some said yeomanry were drunk- they were inexperienced.

• Outcry in the press and critics of the gvt in parliament.
• Riots broke out in support for the “martyrs”
• although privately feeling the magistrates had over-reacted, officials defenced the magistrates and imprisoned Hunt for 2 years.

Question 66

What did the Six Acts represent?

Answer 66

Despite improving economic situation and evidence of growing calm, a majority of MPs accepted the gvts argument that public meetings were enabling demagogues to gain support using intimidating and inflammatory speeches.

• Many believed the Six Acts prevented peaceful protesting
• Could be argued that acts made it impossible to protest legally yest their importance can be seen as exaggerated.

Question 67

What were the Six Acts of 1819?

Answer 67

1. Act of forbidding unauthorised military training
2. Act giving magistrates emergency power to search houses for weapons
3. Act to prevent all but the smallest public meetings
4. Acts to prevent evasions of newspaper stamp duties
5. Act to enable magistrates to seize/ destroy seditious/ blasphemous publications
6. Act to prevent delays by the accused in blasphemy and treason trials.