Race and immigration Flashcards
Attitudes were racist 1918-39
After the demobilisation in 1919, there was an influx of racist violence in cities. The white unemployed attacked black and Asians as they weren’t entitled to ‘British Jobs’. In Cardiff, white violence led to 3 deaths and over £3,000 of property damage
The National Union of Seamen demanded the jobs of non-white sailors be given to white seamen. Influenced 2 acts:
The alien order act 1920 - required migrant workers to register with the police before seeking work; those who failed would be punished by deportation, only applied to black and Asian people
Special restrictions act 1925 - assumed ‘coloured’ seamen were non-British unless they could prove their status as citizens
Racist attitudes were being broken down 1918-39
Defence of the rights of Arab seamen- 1930 NUS tried to force Arab and Somali men out of their jobs. They organised regional strikes and some white workers in Liverpool and other areas supported. The action was unsuccessful but showed some white workers would support the cause. They were successful in forcing the BUF to abandon the Battle of Cable Street in 1936
Harold Moody, moved to Britain to study medicine but chose to stay and was refused employment in British hospitals. Established his own medical practice in London. Established the League of Coloured People 1931 to support immigrant students to gain equal rights. They worked to expose the colour bar and campaigned to gain equal access to healthcare
WW2 had a negative impact on attitudes towards race
Gov propaganda encouraged white men from Australia and New Zealand but not men from the Caribbean. E.g. in mid- 40s the gov rejected an offer from a Caribbean shipping company to pay for 2,000 workers to travel to Britain to carry out war work. Gov discrimination disappeared as the war progressed.
Work - Some Caribbean workers were refused work in factories due to ‘cultural differences’. Promotions for minority soldiers were rare and there was considerable social pressure against black men marrying white women.
US military was segregated - US authorities tried to enforce this after their arrival in 1942. Some British businesses used the US Army as an excuse to enforce a colour bar - the renowned cricketer Learie Constantine was refused accommodation in London’s Imperial Hotel in 1944 as white American guests did not want to stay in a hotel that served black people.
WW2 had a positive impact on attitudes towards race
British Nationality Act 1948 - a legal right for Commonwealth citizens to come to Britain. Campaigns started in India and Pakistan to try and attract workers as wages were higher and the standard of living was rising quickly. The arrival of SS Empire Windrush in 1948 is seen as the beginning of mass migration.
Growing opportunities - education and training was offered to all ex-servicemen post-war, and many recent immigrants made full use of this provision.
Gov officials welcomed Learie Constantine’s legal victory against the Imperial Hotel which established black Britons had the same legal rights as white Britons.
Post-war immigration from the Commonwealth had a positive impact on work
As the British economy grew in the 50s, new immigrants found opportunities to make money
The Jamaican DJ Wilbert Augustus Campbell played Jamaican ska and reggae in nightclubs at London’s West End.
Frank Crichlow, established El Rio in the late 50s - one of the 1st Caribbean restaurants in London.
Generally, found work in the Post Office, railways and in the NHS who recruited 3,000 nurses from the Caribbean 1948-1954.
Post-war immigration from the Commonwelath had a negative impact
Gov reaction - neither party welcomed new immigration. Atlee and Churchill actively tried to discourage it by putting pressure on govs in the Caribbean, Africa and Asia to restrict the availability of passports. Both recommended limits of coloured immigration but were unsuccessful out of fear of damaging Britain’s international reputation.
Letters to MPs - complaints based on the assumption only white people were British so only white people had the right to national benefits and housing - did not express concern about white immigration
Letters from recent immigrant’s made complaints about discrimination but when discussed by the cabinet no action was taken. Lord Salisbury, leader of the HoL, argued action against discrimination would make Britain attractive to ‘coloured’ immigrants so the gov should not intervene to combat racism.
Notting Hill Riots 1958 - several night mobs of 300-700 armed white men, beat the black residents, attacking their homes and businesses, 140 arrests were made but the police took little action to stop the events
1st Commonwealth Immigration Act
1962
End large-scale immigration and prevent a multicultural society.
People from colonies could obtain an entry voucher if they had a job waiting or they had specific skills that the economy required eg. medical
Did allow families to be reunited so spouses or children could enter
Consequence of the 1st Commonwealth Immigration act
1962 - Meant to end mass immigration but led to a multi-cultural society
- To beat the ban black and Asians moved to Britain before the act came into force. The population doubled between 1960-1961
- Between 30,000 to 50,000 work vouchers were issued each year between 1963-1979 so migration continued at historically high rates
2nd Commonwealth Immigration Act
1968
Children of migrants living in Britain +17 were denied entry
Children with only 1 parent living in Britain were denied entry
Entry required connection to Britain: new migrants had to prove a parent or grandparent lived in Britain
The Immigration Act
1971 - introduced 2 racial categories
Partial: born in the UK or parents or grandparents were, tended to apply to white people from Australia, New Zealand and Canada, a very small number from the ‘new’ commonwealth qualified- no restrictions
Non-partials: born outside the UK, parents and grandparents born outside the UK- strict control, no right of entry or residence and those who had lived in the UK for less than 10 years could be sent back to their own country
The Commonwealth acts had negative outcomes
Radicalising black right groups. Labour and Conservatives took tough approaches to immigration between 1965-68 resulting in young black people looking to Black Power.
In 1974 Jamacian-born radical, intellectual Darcus Howe founded the Race Today Collective - the most significant black rights organisation of the period
1st Race Relations Act
1965
Outlawed the colour bar- making it illegal to deny people access to services and public places based on race
Outlawed incitement of racial hatred
Established the Race Relations Board (RRB) to monitor the enforcement of the law
2nd Race Relations Act
1968
Outlawed racial discrimination in housing and employment
Established the Community Relations Commission (CRC) to promote multiculturalism through education
3rd Race Relations Act
1976
This led to further protections from racial discrimination: indirect
Combined the CRC with the RRB to create the new Commission for Racial Equality
Race Relation Acts had a positive outcome
Imposed legal measures so people could be held accountable
1976 law upheld the right for Sikh boys to wear the turban in school
