quiz 8 Flashcards
what is a protist
a eukaryotic organism that is not classified as an animal, plant, or fungi.
what is the difference between endosymbiosis and secondary endosymbiosis ?
Endosymbiosis certain unicellular organisms engulf other cells, which become endosymbionts
Eukaryotes engulfed an aerobic alpha proteobacterium mitochondria
Heterotrophic eukaryotes engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium chloroplast/plastids
Secondary endosymbiosis is which a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell,
what is algae
algae are photosynthesis prokaryotes
what is the functional nutritional diversity of euukaryotes ?
Photoautotrophs: contain chloroplasts/plastids
Heterotrophs: absorb organic molecules or ingest larger molecules/prey
Mixotrophs are organisms capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy
Phototrophy, heterotrophy and mixotrophy all arisen independently in several protist lineages
what is the reproductive diversity of eukaryotes
Reproductive diversity
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Use of meiosis and fertilization
Alternation of generations
Haploid organism (2n zygote only)
what is the ecological role of protists ?
Many protists are producers that use energy from light (or inorganic compounds) to convert carbon dioxide to organic compounds.
what is the ecological role of symbionts ?
Mutualism: photosynthetic dinoflagellates + coral polyps coral reefs
Mutualism: wood-digesting protists in gut of termites
Parasitism: Plasmodium malaria; Pfiesteria shumwayae eats fish skin; Phytophthora ramorum sudden oak death
what are excavatas ?
The eukaryotic supergroup that contains flagellated single-celled organisms with a excavated feeding groove.
Diplomonads, Parabasalids, Euglenozoans.
define excavates : diplomonads, parablasids, and euglonozanes ?
Diplomonads is a protist that has modified mitochondria called mitosomes , two equal-sized nuclei, and multiple flagella, and use aneorobic biochemical pathways.
Parabasalids have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes that generate some energy anaerobically.
Euglonozanes a diverse clade that includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, mixotrophs, and parasites. has a morphological feature that is the presence of a rod with either a spiral or a crystalline structure inside each of their flagella
what is the difference between euglenozans : kinetoplastids and euglenids ?
Kinetoplastids have a single, large mitochondrion with an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast. heterotrophs
Euglenids -Pocket at one end of the cell from which one or two flagella emerge. can perform photosynthesis ( also have plastids as a result of secondary symbiosis of green algae.
Mixotrophs, switch based on availability of light
Heterotrophs can engulf prey by phagocytosis
what is the sar clade
this supergroups is named after three large and very diverse clades: Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria.
define stramenopila, alvelota, and rhizarians ?
Stramenophiles have smooth and hairy flagella and photosynthetic.
Some are heterotrophs and phototrophs.
Alveolates membrane enclosed (sacs) just under the plasma membrane . Include a wide range of photosynthetic and heterotrophic protists.
Rhizarians many are ameobas , and are protists that move and feed by pseudopodia (cellular extensions, “false feet”)
Rhizarians typically have threadlike pseudopodia
what is the difference between stramenophiles: diatoms, golden algae, and brown algae ?
brown algae Largest and most complex algae; all are multicellular
Thallus refers to an algal body that is plantlike
Holdfast anchors, but not true root
Stipe is stem-like, supports Blades are leaf-like
golden algae which results from their yellow and brown carotenoids. Most species are unicellular, but some are colonial. All are photosynthetic, some are mixotrophic.
diatoms photosynthetic protists, unicellular algae that have a unique glass-like wall made of silicon dioxide embedded in an organic matrix.
define alveolates : dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates ?
dinoflagellates Reinforced by cellulose plates with two flagella located in groove spin as move through water.Roughly half are now purely heterotrophic. Others are important species of phytoplankton. Many of the photosynthetic ones are also mixotrophic.
apicomplexans is a type of parasitic protozoan and Most have life cycles with sexual and asexual stages linked to two or more host species.
ciiates Genetic variation created by conjugation, a sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei but do not reproduce
Micronuclei store of genetic information, haploid or diploid
Macronuclei control everyday functions of the cell, typically contain multiple copies of the genome
Cilia can cover entire cell surface or be clustered in rows/tufts
define the types of rhizarians : forams, cerozans, and radiolarians ?
radiolarians have delicate intricately symmetrical internal skeletons that are generally made of silicia.
Pseudopodia radiate from central body; reinforced by microtubule bundles covered with cytoplasm
Microorganisms that attach to pseudopodia are engulfed
Cytoplasmic streaming carries prey to main part of cell
cerozans A large group of amoeboid and flagellated protists that feed using threadlike pseudopodia. Most cercozoans are heterotrophs. Many are parasites of plants, animals, or other protists; many others are predators.
Mixotrophs
Autotroph: Paulinella chromatophora
Chromatophore derived from cyanobacterium
Forams are named for their porous shells, called tests. Foram tests consist of a single piece of organic material that is typically hardened with calcium carbonate. The pseudopodia that extend through the pores function in swimming, test formation, and feeding.
eukaryote subgroup : archaeplastida : red algae, green algae, and land plants ?
Red algae are usually multicelluar
Still have chloroplasts but the red photosynthetic pigment phycoerythrin masks the green chlorophyll.
Green Algae
Greenish color due to pigmentation very similar to chloroplasts seen in land plants
Increase in complexity by three mechanisms:
- formation of colonies from individual cells
- formation of true multicellular bodies by cell division and differentiation (e.g., Ulva)
- repeated division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic division (e.g., Caulerpa)
What is the supergroup Unikonts
Unikonta includes fungi, animals, and some protists.
This group includes two clades: the amoebozans and the opisthokonts.
Define amoebozans (unikonta)
Amoebozans are amoebas that have lobe or tube shaped pseudopodia rather than threadlike psueupodia found in rhizarians.
slime molds
tubulinds
entamoebas
Define opisthokonts ( unikonta)
Opisthokonts is a extremely diverse group of eukaryotes that includes animals, fungi, and several group of protists.
Nucleariids, most closely related to fungi
Choanoflagellates, most closely related to animals
what are characterists of fungi ?
Single-celled yeasts or multicellular filaments
Nutrient recyclers
Food source
Manufacturing: Bread to antibiotics
what are the five phyla fungi are classified into ?
Chytridiomycota (paraphyletic)
Zygomycota (paraphyletic)
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
what is the orgin of fungi ?
Fungi and animals are more closely related to each other
Evolved from flagellated ancestor, most fungal species now lack flagella
Within clade of opisthokonts
Fungi are more closely related to unicellular nucleariids
Multicellularity likely evolved in fungi and animals independently ( analogous structures )
define fungi’s nutrition and how they obtain energy ?
fungi are heterotrophs that asorb nutrients.
Nutrition and energy: heterotrophs who digest food before ingesting it; made up of saprobes, parasites, and mutualists.
Secrete hydrolytic enzymes into surrounding environment break down complex molecules into smaller organic molecules that can be absorbed
define body structure yeasts
single-celled fungi that often inhabit moist environments such as animal tissues and plant saps where there is a ready supply of soluble nutrients like sugars and amino acids
Reproduce asexually
Ordinary cell division
Budding, pinches off small from parent cell
body structure : multicelluar fillaments
hyphae are tiny filaments that make up the multicellular mycelia, consisting of a tubular cell wall surrounded by the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of the cells.
Cell wall strengthened by chitin, a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide
Interwoven mass of hyphae is called the mycelium
Infiltrates food source
Maximizes surface-to-volume ratio (growth increases length
what is the difference between septa hypha and coencytic hypha
Cross-walled divisions (septa) in hyphae that have pores large enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuceli to flow from cell to cell.
coenocytic hypha, hyphae are a continuous cytoplasmic mass containing many nuclei
Repeated cell division without cytokinesis
what are specialized hyphae
arbuscules are fungi that have specialized hyphae
Used to exchange nutrients with host plant cells
Remain physically separated from plant cell’s cytoplasm by the plasma membrane of the plant cell
Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots are called mycorrhizae
what are the two types of mycorrhizal fungi
Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths of hyphae over the surface of a root and typically grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex
Arbuscular myocorrhizal fungi extend branching hyphae through the root cell wall and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell plasma membrane
what is the reproduction of fungi ?
Most fungi propagate either sexually or asexually by producing large numbers of spores
Nuclei of hyphae and spores are mostly haploid
sexual reproduction of fungi ?
Mold is an informal term for a fungus that grows as a filamentous fungus, producing haploid spores by mitosis and forming a visible mycelium
Grow rapidly
Large number of spores enables colonization of new food sources
what is plasmogamy
Plasmogamy is the union of cytoplasm from two parent mycelia ( fusion of cytopasm). different hyphae meet and they fuse cytoplasm.
what is the heterokaryotic stage ?
After the fusion of the mycelia, some fungi go through a heterokaryotic stage in which cells contain two genetically distinct haploid nuclei that do not fuse right away.
nuclei remain distinct and haploid
what is a dikaryotic cell ?
dikaryotic cell is when in some fungi, the haploid nuclei pair off two to a cell
what are pherosomes used for ?
Pherosomes are sexual signaling molecules used to communicate to their mating type .
what are fungi ecological roles ?
Fungi are efficent decomposers of of organic matieral including cellulose and lingin, jet fuel, and house paint.
fungi are essential for maintianing supply of inorganic nutrients called carbon and nitrogen.
fungi as plant mutualism
Mycorrhizae: mutualistic symbiosis between a fungus and a plant root
All plant species also harbor fungal endophytes
Live inside leaf or other plant part without causing harm
May make toxins that deter herbivores (grasses and other non-woody plants)
May increase host plant tolerance of heat, drought, heavy metals
fungus as animal mutualism
fungi help break down plant material in the guts of cows and other grazing mammals
-Many species of ants use the digestive power of fungi by raising them in “farms”
fungi as microorganism mutualism
symbiotic relationship between a photosynthetic organism and a fungus.
-The algae provide carbon compounds, cyanobacteria also provide organic nitrogen, and fungi provide the environment for growth
Fungi provide suitable environment for photosynthetic partners
Gas exchange
Protection
Retention of water and minerals, mostly absorbed from airborne dust or from rain
fungi as parasites
About 30% of known fungal species exist as parasites or pathogens
Plants:
Cryphonectria parasitica causes chestnut blight; spores enter cracks in the tree and produce hyphae that kill the tree
fungi as parasites
Mycosis is the general term used for an infection caused by a fungal parasite
Skin mycosis: athlete’s foot and other ringworm infections
Systemic mycoses typically caused by inhaled spores
Opportunistic mycosis: Candida albicans can become pathogenic and cause “yeast infections”
what is the difference between red algae and golden algae ?
red and green algae are products of primary endosymbiosis ,but golden and brown algae are a product of secondary symbiosis from red algae.
Chapter 29 and 30 plant diversity
what’s the difference between gametophytes and sporophytes ?
gametophytes (n) multicelluar and create gametes by mitosis .
sporophytes are multicelluar and produces haploid reproductive cells ( spores ) by meiosis .
Multicelluar Dependendant
what are embrophytes ?
Embrophytes develop from zygotes retained with tissues of the female parent ( gametophyte).
what are the similarities between land plants and charophytes ?
Charophytes and land plants have in common:
Rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins in the plasma membrane
Structure of flagellated sperm (in applicable plant species)
Cell division utilizing the phragmoplast between the daughter nuclei to guide formation of the cell plate
what are five key traits that appear in land plants but not in charophyte algae ?
Alternation of generations (occurs in some algae but not charophytes)
Multicellular, dependent embryos
Walled spores produced in sporangia ( asexual reproducing bodies )
Multicellular gametangia ( sexual reproducing bodies )
Apical meristems (points of growth)
what is the role of a gametophyte
gametophyte role is to make gametes,eggs, and sperm that fuse during fertilization.
multicelluar dependant embryos ?
Multicellular plant embryos, embryophytes, develop from zygotes retained within tissues of the female parent (gametophyte)
Parental tissues provide nutrients
Placental transfer cells enhance the transfer of nutrients from parent to embryo
what organ produces spores ?
Multicellular organs called sporangia produce spores
Diploid cells called sporocytes undergo meiosis to yield haploid spores
Plant spores (haploid reproductive cells) 🡪 mitosis 🡪 yield gametangia
what are spores protected by ?
Spores are protected by sporopollenin polymer in their walls; resistant to harsh and arid environments
where are gametes produced ?
Gametes are produced within multicellular organs (gametangia) present in gametophyte
what are female and male gamentangia called ?
Archegonia are female gametangia; each will produce a single, non-motile egg
Antheridia are male gametangia; sperm have flagella and can swim to the eggs through water droplets or a film of water
what are apical meristems ?
Apical meristems are localized regions of cell division at the tips of roots and shoots that sustain growth in length throughout the organism’s life.
Cells differentiate into outer epidermis (protection)
Internal tissues
Leaves
the difference between cuticles and stomatos ?
Many species also have a covering for the epidermis called the cuticle
Consists of wax and other polymers
Acts as waterproofing to prevent excessive water loss from the aboveground portions of the plant
Provides some protection from microbial attack
Specialized pores called stomata allow the exchange of CO2 and O2 for photosynthesis
describe how plants are categorized to show diversification of plants ? vascular vs non vascular
based on whether they have an extensive system of vascular tissue, cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body
Bryophytes are “nonvascular”
Vascular plants
Seedless plants
Seed plants
characteristics of bryophytes ?
Nonvascular plants
Liverworts
Mosses
Hornworts
Dominant stage of the life cycle: Gametophyte
Gametophytes are anchored by rhizoids, which are long, tubular single cells (liverworts and hornworts) or filaments of cells (mosses) rather than roots
The foot is embedded in the archegonium and absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte
The seta, or stalk, conducts nutrients to the sporangium, or capsule
what two clades can seedless vascular plants be divided into ?
Seedless plants
Lycophytes (club mosses)
Pterophytes (ferns)
Seed plants
define what is a seed, angiosperm, and gymnosperm
A seed is an embryo packaged with a supply of nutrients inside a protective coat
Gymnosperms bear naked seeds that are not enclosed in protective chambers
Angiosperms are flowering plants which form seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary
define xylem, phloem, true roots, ;lignin, and leaves ?
Transport
Xylem conducts most of the water and minerals
Phloem distributes sugars, amino acids, other organic products
Cell walls of water-conducting cells are strengthened by lignin
True roots, organs that absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Evolution of leaves
Increase the surface area of the plant body
Primary photosynthetic organ
what are sporophylls ?
Sporophylls are modified leaves that bear sporangia
heterosporous vs homosporous ?
Most seedless vascular plants are homosporous, bearing one type of sporophyll bearing one type of spore, which typically develops into a bisexual gametophyte
Seed plants are heterosporous with two types of sporangia producing two different kinds of spores
what are male and female spores called ?
Megasporangia produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes
Microsporangia produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes
production of egg and sperm :ovules and eggs
A layer of sporophyte tissue called the integument envelops and protects the megasporangium
An ovule consists of the integument, megasporangium, and megaspore
Inside each ovule, a female gametophyte develops from a megaspore and produces one or more eggs
production of egg and sperm ; pollen and sperm ?
A microspore develops into a pollen grain consisting of a male gametophyte enclosed within the pollen wall
Transfer of pollen to the part of the seed plant that contains the ovules is called pollination
Sperm does not require water for transport, nor motility (carried through pollen tube)
what are the advantages of seeds over spores ?
Advantages over spores
Seeds have longer lifespans in a dormant state
Carry their own supply of stored food
Can be carried for longer distances
Wind
Animals
gymnosperms
Have naked seeds not contained in ovaries; usually exposed on modified leaves that form cones
angiosperms
All angiosperms are classified into a single phylum, Anthophyta
Key adaptations
Flowers
Fruit
what is a flower
A flower is a specialized shoot used for sexual reproduction, composed of up to four rings of modified leaves
define sepals, petals, carpels, and stamens ?
Sepals are usually green and enclose the flower before it opens; sterile organ
Petals aid in attracting pollinators; sterile organ
Stamens produce microspores that develop into pollen grains containing the male gametophyte
Filament = stalk
Anther = terminal sac where pollen is produced
Carpels make megaspores and thus female gametophytes
the stigma is at the end of the carpel and is sticky to receive pollen
A style leads from the stigma to the ovary which contains one or more ovules
what is a fruit ?
A fruit typically consists of a mature ovary, may include other flower parts
As seeds develop from ovules, the ovary wall thickens
the diploid generation of the plant life cycle always
produces spores
In Alteration of Generations, what structures are Haploids?
egg
sperm
gametophyte
in plants which are produced by meoisis
haploid spores
what are the products of meoisis in life cycle of a seed plant ?
microspores and megaspores
What are the 3 types of plant tissues
The tissue system is a functional unit connecting the organs of a plant
Dermal tissue outer protective covering
Vascular tissue system carries out long distances transport of matierals between root and short systems .
ground tissue system are tissue thay are neither dermal nor vascular and perform a variety of functions
What are the types of cotyledons
Monocots flowering plant species with one cotyledon
Dicots flowering plants with two cotyledons
Basal angiosperms flowering plants belonging to the three oldest lineages
Magnoliids both woody and herbaceous species of flowering plants floral organs typically arranged in a spiral .
eudicots are a true clade of most flowering plants with two cotyledons
bedmm
Monocots vs eudocots
Monocots typically have parallel leaf veins ( examples: orchids, palms, grain crops(
Eudicots typically have leaf veins arranged in a netlike pattern (network)
Examples : roses, peas, sunflowers
Define the three plant organs : roots, stems, leaves
Root system includes all of plants roots which anchor in the soil, absorb and transport minerals and water and stores food
Shoot system is the aerial portion of the plant body consisting of stems leaves and in ( angiosperms) flowers
Vegatative shoots refers to production of non reproductive leaves, stems, roots, reproductive shoots bear flowers ( modified leaves )
What is a root
A root is an organ that anchors a vascular plant in the soil absorbs minerals and water and stores carbohydrates
Taproots vs lateral roots
Taproot are a single main vertical root which develops from an embryonic root
Lateral roots or branch roots arise from taproots.
What is a stem
A stem is an organ that raises or separates leaves and raises reproductive structures and facilitates pollen and fruit dispersal .
Nodes vs internodes
Nodes points at which leaves are attached
Internodes stem segments between nodes
Axillary bud vs apical bud
Axillary bud is a structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot ( branch) or thorn/ flower
Apical bud ( terminal bud) located at the tip of the stem
Composed of developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes
What is apical dominance
Apical dominance is an inhibition in which Axillary buds in close proximity to the apical bud are kept dormant
What is a leaf and the structures of a leaf
Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ
Flattened blade
Peptiole or stalk that joins the leaf to the stem at the node
Veins the vascular tissue of leaves
Xylem and parts of xylem
Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots into the shoots ( water conducting cells that are dead at functional maturity)
Tracheids found in vascular plants ( long and thin with tampered ends and have pits connects cells and allow water flow(
Vessel elements found in most angiosperm, a few seedless vascular plants and few gymnosperms. ( wider , shorter, thinner walls, and less tapered(
Vessels microspores made from aligned vessel elements from end to end
Phloem
Phloem transports sugars ( products of photosynthesis) from where made leaves to where needed ( roots and sites of growth)
Sieve tube elements are chains of cells that make up sieve tubes
Sieve plates an end wall between sieve tube elements that have pores and facilitate fluid flow
Ground tissue
Ground tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue is called pith
Ground tissue that is external to
The vascular system is called cortex
Types of ground tissue
Parenchyma cells do metabolic functions photosynthesis starch storage, flesh of fruit
Collenchyma cells provide flexible support
Scleremchyma cells provide rigid support
what is double fertilization
it is responsible for the formation of the diploid zygote (egg plus sperm) and the triploid central cell ( two nuclei in large central cell of the female gametophye and sperm )
zygote sporophyte embryo
triploid central cell is the endosperm
what are cotyledons
cotyledons are one or two seed leaves.
what is stele
The vascular tissue of a root or stem is collectively called the stele
monocots vs eudicots with the tissue organization in roots
In angiosperms, the stele is a vascular cylinder
Eudicots: Xylem has starlike shape with phloem between the star arms
Monocots: Central core of parenchyma cells are surrounded by a ring of xylem and a ring of phloem
what is the endodermis ?
Vascular cylinder bordered by a single cell layer called the endodermis
Between endodermis and epidermis, ground tissue (mostly parenchyma) fills the cortex
tissue orgnization in stems monocots vs eudicots
Eudicots: Arranged in a ring, with xylem adjacent to the pith and phloem adjacent to the cortex
Monocots: Scattered throughout the ground tissue
angiosperm tissue organization in stems
Angiosperm stem/leaves: stele consists of vascular bundles, separate strands of xylem and phloem
Covered by protective epidermis layer
what is the tissue organization in leaves: leaf promorida, stomata, guard cells, and mesophylls.
Leaves develop from leaf primordia, projections along the sides of the apical meristem
Epidermis is interrupted by pores called stomata Allow exchange of CO2 and O2
Opening/closing regulated by guard cells
Ground tissue is made of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis (mesophyll)
Vascular tissue runs through leaf, enclosed by a protective bundle sheath
what is bulk flow ?
Long distance transport occurs through bulk flow, the movement of liquid in response to a pressure gradient
what is the phloem sap?
Sugars are produced by photosynthesis in the leaves
Phloem sap can flow both ways through shoots and roots
what is the function of stomata
Stomata in leaves:
Gas exchange: take in CO2 and release O2
Regulate loss of water (transpiration)
what is the function of roots
Roots absorb water and minerals; exchange gases with air spaces of soil
what are two major compartments of plant tissues
The apoplast refers to everything external to the plasma membranes of living cells; includes cell walls, extracellular spaces and interiors of dead cells (tracheids, vessel elements)
The symplast consists of the entire mass of cytosol of all living cells as well as the plasmodesmata
explain transpiration cohesion thoery xylem
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant
Transpirational pull:
Water vapor diffuses from moist air space to drier outside air via stomata
Lost water vapor is replaced by
evaporation from water film covering mesophyll cells
Surface tension pulls water from surrounding cells/air spaces
Water pulled from xylem into surrounding cells/air spaces to replace water that was lost
cohesion tension theory ; adhesion vs cohesion
Upward movement from roots to shoots facilitated by adhesion and cohesion
adhesion vs cohesion
Cohesion is the attractive force between molecules of the same substance
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules
Water molecules in column pulled from above without separating
Adhesion is the attractive force between water molecules and other polar substances
Water molecules interact with hydrophilic walls of xylem
Offsets downward force of gravity
sugar transport ; phloem sap
Phloem sap travels through sieve tubes, with sieve plates interspersed between cells
Also contains amino acids, hormones, minerals
Phloem sap moves from source to sink by bulk flow driven by positive pressure
Proton pumping and H+/sugar cotransport enables sugar loading into the sieve tube at the source
Reduction of water potential within the sieve tube causes water uptake by osmosis; water generates positive pressure that pushes sap to flow
At the sugar sink, the concentration of free sugar is low relative to the sieve tube; sugar molecules move into sink cell by diffusion
Water exits sieve tube by osmosis
what seeds are heterosporous vs homosporous
heterosporous are gymnosperms and angiosperms.
homosporous are pterophytes
which plant have seeds in their life cycle
angiosperms and gymnosperms utilize seeds as part of their life cycle.
which plants use a taproot system
eudicots and gymnosperms
what are plants that have vascular tissue ?
angiosperms
gymnosperms
pterophytes
what is a lichen
a lichen is a relationship between plants and fungi .
what are similarities between diatoms and radiolarians
diatoms and radiolarians have a celluar structure that is made rigid incorporation of silica.
what are endophytes
endophytes is the symbiotic relationship that involve fungi living between the cells in plant leaves .
