Quiz Flashcards
Claim, Data, Warrant
Claim=idea, main point. An assertion to be accepted by the reader
Data=support. Explanation or evidence to support the claim
Warrant=connection or bridge. A bridge to link the claim/data unit to the main point
Claims should be…
- stated explicitly
- phrased appropriately for the audience and situation
- directly relevant to the objective of the message
Data should be…
- relevant
- compelling
- specific
- varied
Using data…
- Balance evidence that proves with evidence that explains
- use complementary types of data
- adapt your data for your audience
Types of Data
- Statistics and other numerical data
- Personal stories or anecdotes
- Analogies
- Examples
- Quotations of experts (books, interviews)
- Explanations
What are warrants?
- Warrants are chains of reasoning that connect the claim and data
- Warrants operate at higher level of generality than a claim or reason
- Warrants are often implicit– the connection is not stated in words, but is apparent from the way the claim and data are presented
Warrants should be…
- Clear
- Convincing
- Apparent to the recipient
Warrants: implicit or explicit?
Varies by audience. Resistance
Appeal to false authority
Using an authority as evidence in your argument when the authority is not really an authority on the facts relevant to the argument. As the audience, allowing an irrelevant authority to add credibility to the claim being made.
Appeal to popular opinion
Using a majority viewpoint to prove the merit of a point
Red Herring
Using data that does not relate to the point being made
False Division/Dichotomy
Artificially limiting the number of possibilities under consideration
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself
Hasty Generalization
Using minimal data points to come to a general conclusion
False Analogy
Assuming that two things are alike in all respects because they are similar in one respect
Slippery Slope
A conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B,C, …. X,Y,Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don’t want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to occur either
Sequential Fallacy
Using temporal sequencing to come to the conclusion that a predecessor event has cause a more recent one
Types of Communication Structures
Wheel, Y, Circle, Chain, Networked
Networked Communication
Advantages:
–Can reach all members in real time
–Each participant has voice
–Democratization effect
Disadvantages:
–Message is “blasted” rather than adapted for audience
–Information overload
Four Steps to Building a Strategic Communications Capability
- Strong Strategic foundation
2.Right Set of tools
What/How/Who model - Development process
- Team of people with the right spirit and skill set
Effective Organizational Communication
- Adapt to your audience (tone, content, channel, timing)
- Plan ahead and create an overall communication plan tied closely to the strategic business plan
- Identify stakeholders and develop specific communication plan for each.
-Be ready to adapt your plans if
business strategy or business needs change.
What/How/Who
What=category plans
How=Channel plans
Who=Audience Plans
Four Step’s to Persuasion
- Establish Credibility
- Frame common ground (through adaptation)
- Provide Evidence
- Connect emotionally
Persuasion in business
People assume persuasion is just for marketing/sales. NOT TRUE
Adapt by Emphasizing their benefits
Persuasive adaptiveness measure is a tool for evaluating the extent to which a document addresses key reader concerns.
Increase adaptiveness by:
- Benefits rather than features
- Cost/benefit
- Long-term benefits
- Disadvantages bring advantages
Developing Persuasive Argument
- Adaptation
- Strategy
- Support
- Components
Potential disadvantage=advantage
Emphasize what is gained or retained
Cost/benefit statement
Emphasize the benefits along with the costs
Benefits to greater good
Emphasize benefits to the community
Long-term cost effectiveness
Emphasize how initial cost saves money in the long run
Strategy
Emotional=data driven
Or
logical= appeal to aspirations
Emotional (strategy)
- Audience is concerned with values, moral choices
- Situation involves wellbeing or satisfaction
- Intangible benefits are most important
Logical (strategy)
- Audience is interested in facts or figures
- Financial concerns are important
- Emotional appeals may be considered manipulative
Support
Subjective= Testimony, stories, analogies, visual images Objective= data, facts, figures
Individual (cultural dimension)
members prioritizing individual needs and goals over the needs of the group. typical of LC cultures
Collective (cultural dimension)
members are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families. prioritize group needs of individual needs. typical of HC cultures
Low Context
meanings are explicitly stated through language. Characterized by direct and linear communication and by the constant and sometimes never-ending use of words. Communication is direct, precise, dramatic, open, and based on feelings or true intentions.
High Context
-communication style is influenced by the closeness of human relationships, well-structure social hierarchy, and strong behavioral norms.
-Internal meaning is usually embedded deep in info, so not everything is explicitly stated.
listener is expected to be able to read “between the lines”.
- People tend to speak one after another in a linear way. few interruptions.
- Communication is indirect, ambiguous, harmonious, reserved and understated.
-greater confidence is placed in the non-verbal aspects of communication than in the verbal
Linear active
- Calm, factual and decisive planners
- task oriented, highly organized
- one thing at a time
Reactive
-courteous, outwardly amiable, accommodating, compromising and good listeners
“listening cultures”
- listen first
- seem slow to react
Multi-actives
- warm, emotional, loquacious, and impulsive
- do many things at a time
- talk in roundabout, animated way
- speak and listen at the same time, interruptions
- uncomfortable with silence
Linear View of Time
- consider time in distinct segments
- time as entity save, spend, lose
- complete tasks in some kind of order
- follow schedule
- focus on task at hand
- keep work, family, and social separate
Flexible View
- time as ongoing process that is flexible
- work on more than one project at a time; adept at multi-tasking
- don’t worry about a schedule
- focus on relationships involved in the task rather than the task itself
- blend work, family, social
Cyclical View
-time as circular and repetitive
- complete tasks over long period that includes time for reflection
- focus on long term in accomplishing tasks and establishing relationships
Authoritarian cultures
- have generally authoritarian views
- value conformity over personal achievement
- place more importance on fairness than freedom
Democratic cultures
- value individuality and personal contributions
- believe everyone is equal even when one position is higher in hierarchy than the other
Cultures comfortable with silence
- try to maintain control of discussion by use of silence
- believe that what is not said can be important
Cultures uncomfortable with silence
- may fill every gap in conversation with words such as “you know what I mean?” “uh”
- try to maintain control over discussion by preventing silences
Women
- see questions as a way to keep conversation flowing
- expect new comments to reflect what last speaker said
- view aggressiveness as an attack and as a negative disruptive
- define topics broadly and shift or expand topic gradually
- respond to a problem with sympathy and offer reassurance and solidarity
Men
- see questions as simply requests for information
- not require their comments relate to speaker’s comment
- view aggressiveness as one way to control the conversation
- define topic narrowly and shift abruptly
- respond to a problem by offering advice and trying to provide solutions
Free agent cultures
view employees as marketable product
- work for wages and benefits
- move from job to job to improve circumstances
- can be fired under certain circumtsances
Group-oriented culture
view employees as part of a group or community
- are partially dependent on connections to others
- keep the same job for a long time out of loyalty
- tend not to be fired
