Quiz 3 Study Cards Flashcards
1
Q
What is different about human communication and animal communication?
A
- symbolic units (lexicon)
- Syntax (grammar)
2
Q
What are the four language skills of human communication?
A
- Listening
- Speaking
- Reading
- Writing
3
Q
What Language Skills are Experience Expectant Plasticity?
A
Spoken
- Listening
- Speaking
4
Q
What Language skills are Experience-Dependent Plasticity?
A
Written
- Reading
- Writing
5
Q
What Language Skills are Encoding? Decoding?
A
Encoding
- Speaking
- Writing
Decoding
- Listening
- Reading
6
Q
How did Humans upgrade communication beyond the here and now? what did it do?
A
How
- Spoken language using conceptual and computational language
What
- Allowed us to form communities in large scales
7
Q
How did written language upgrade human communication?
A
- expanded existence and communication beyond life and death
- communicating with the dead
8
Q
What does language do?
A
- enables complex and varied human thinking and expression
9
Q
Why is language a great gym for the brain?
A
- it co-activates many systems and cognitive functions
10
Q
What do early language skills predict?
A
- academic achievement
11
Q
What does Aphasia predict?
A
- impaired cognitive performance (even on non-verbal tasks)
12
Q
How does Socioeconomic Status impact language?
A
- Early language skills predict academic outcomes
- Differences in vocabulary seen as early as 18months and gap grows as they get older
13
Q
What was the early model of neurolinguistics?
A
The Wernicke-Geschwind Model
14
Q
Explain the Wernicke-Geschwind Model of Neurolinguistics
A
Language functions are localized in specific brain areas in the left cerebral hemispher
15
Q
Where is Broca’s Area located? Where is Wernicke’s Area?
A
Broca’s Area
- Left side, frontal lobe
Wernicke’s Area
- Upper Temporal Lobe, left hemisphere
16
Q
What happens if the Broca’s Area is damaged?
A
Patients could understand language but could not produce organized speech
17
Q
What happens with an injury to Wernicke’s Area?
A
- Poor Understanding of speech
- Patients speak fluently but with no meaning
18
Q
What were the four areas the Wernicke-Geschwind Model identified as important for language? Why was each one important?
A
- Broca’s Area: involved in production of speech sound
- Wernicke’s Area: involved in understanding of speech
- Motor Cortex: controls movement of muscles, face muscle and processing of communication movements
- Arcuate Fasciculus: Connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s Areas
19
Q
What does the Updated Cognitive-Neuroscientific Model of Neurolinguistics emphasize?
A
- Widespread activity involved in language processing
20
Q
How do the Wernicke-Geschwind Model and the Cognitive-Neuroscientific Model differ?
A
- CNM emphasizes less localization than WGM
- CNM sees widespread activity from language-brain areas all over the brain
21
Q
What are the three levels of language described by the cognitive-neuroscientific model?
A
- Phonological Level: sounds of language
- Grammatical (syntax): structure of language
- Semantic: meaning of language
22
Q
What are the different levels of the multi-level approach to language analysis? (6)
A
- Phonetics: speech sounds
- Phonology: phonemes
- Morphology: words
- Syntax: Phrases and Sentences
- Semantics: Literal Meaning of phrases and sentences
- Pragmatics: Meaning in context of discourse
23
Q
What level of the multi-level model of language is impaired in high functioning autism?
A
- Pragmatics: literal meaning within a specific context
24
Q
What level of the multi-level model of language impaired in dyslexia?
A
- Phonology: deficit in understanding and use of the phonological system for literacy skills (decoding and encoding)
25
What are the three types of brain activation between preschool, first year of reading and second year of reading?
Preschool: No reading, limited activation in brain while reading
First Year: Effortful Reading, high activation throughout the brain
Second year: Automatized Reading: more specialized networks
26
Does reading have a designated brain network?
- NO
27
What does reading reflect in regards to the human brain?
- the ability to remodel the brain pathways to create new abilities
28
What is the difference between novice readers and more experienced readers in regards to neuronal activity?
Novice Reader
- recruit more frontal areas (more cognitive control)
- diffused and high neuronal activation patterns while reading
Experienced
- More solidified networks
29
What does the increased recruitment of frontal areas and higher neuronal activation patterns for novice readers indicate?
- a bigger effort that reduces with time and experience
30
What are the Cortical Networks for Reading?
- Top-down attention and serial reading
- Visual Inputs
- Visual words form area (the brains letterbox)
- Access to meaning
- Access to pronunciation and articulation
31
What are the 3 steps of Reading?
1. Visual Input (early visual cortex)
2. Visual Word Form Area: Specializes in identifying words, flags visual information as language
3. Information is spread over the left hemisphere: to decode word meaning (ventral) and sound pattern and articulation (dorsal)
32
Which Cortical Network is Reading Specific?
- Visual Word Form Area
33
What does the Development of the Reading Brain Include?
1. Specialization of the left hemisphere
2. Increased engagement of left posterior brain
3. Decreased engagement of left anterior
34
What happens to the reading networks with increased experience with reading?
- based more on posterior reading networks (intuitive reading)
- Relies less on frontal networks (control, working-memory, effortful)
35
Is Dyslexia a spectrum? how many people does it effect?
Yes, it effects 20% of the population
36
Regarding Neuronal Networks, what do people with Dyslexia experience?
- Increased frontal and right activation to compensate for reduced left posterior reading networks
37
Will early detection of Dyslexia help?
- early detection and intervention can significantly improve reading performance and normalize brain function
38
What is one type of intervention for Dyslexia? how does it help?
- Phonologically based intervention, focusing on letter-sound mapping
- Promotes brain activity that facilitates reading
39
Is Dyslexia hereditary?
- Yes
40
What two brain systems are connected to learn to read?
- Language System
- Visual System
41
Explain Dyslexia
- Difficulty in Decoding
- Hard time identifying speech sounds and their relation to letters and words (phonological level)
42
What does being right-brained or left-brained say about a person?
- absolutely nothing, tis a myth
43
What is Brain Lateralization?
- each hemisphere does something different
44
What is an example of a low lateralization system?
- motor cortex
45
What are some facts about Brain Lateralization?
- No function is completely lateralized
- some functions are more lateralized than others
- Even the strongest lateralizing systems use both hemisphers
46
What are the four main functions that are lateralized?
- Symbolic Communication (language)
- Perception and Action
- Emotion
- Decision Making
47
What is the Left Hemispheres Role in Language?
- Basic-level syntactic and semantic analysis of language (both spoken and written)
- Finding connections between sounds and meanings
48
What is the Right Hemispheres role in language?
- High-order understanding of language (semantic, abstract, and emotional)
49
Explain human's biological predisposition to detect and process human language
- Newborns respond to auditory stimuli in the range of language frequencies
- show clear preference for verbal sounds
- language is predominantly processed by left hemisphere, inborn asymmetry of language
50
What is Perceptual Narrowing?
- Perception of phonemes is broad at birth
- Recognition is selective to native phonemes by end of third year
51
When are classical language regions activated?
- age of 6
- not functionally connected
52
What happens to the organization of language between age 8-20 years?
- functional connectivity between frontal and temporal language regions
53
What plays an important role in the functional development of language systems?
- experiences
54
What are the Three Models of Language?
- Wernicke-Geshwind Model
- Cognitive-Neuroscientific Model
- Contemporary Functional-Neuroanatomy Model
55
Explain the Contemporary Functional-Neuroanatomy Model of Language
- Dual Stream model
- language processing starts in superior part of temporal lobe
- Splits into ventral and dorsal stream
56
According to the CFNM model of language, where does language processing start?
- Superior part of the temporal lobe
57
What is the Ventral Stream responsible for according to the CFNM of language? where is it located?
Responsible
- speech comprehension and lexical concepts
located
- temporal lobe
58
How is the dorsal stream organized regarding the CFNM of language?
has 2 endings
- 1 ending is the premotor cortex
- the other is the inferior frontal gyrus (broca's area)
both streams go through TPJ (temporal-parietal junction)
59
What is the Dorsal stream of the CFNM of language responsible for?
Involved in sensorimotor integration (speech production)
60
What is Aphasia?
Imparied Language disorder
61
How do people get Aphasia?
- Damage to portion of the brain language system
- Usually from stroke or head injury
- Can occur from brain tumor or progressive neurological disease
62
What does Aphasia do?
- impairs expression and understanding of language, reading and writing
63
What can Aphasia co-occur with?
- apraxia
64
What are the Two subtypes of Aphasia?
- Fluent
- Non-Fluent
65
What is the most common type of Fluent Aphasia?
- Wernicke's Aphasia
66
Explain Wernicke's Aphasia
- Fluent production of speech with no sense
- Difficulty understanding speech
- patients often unaware of mistakes
67
What is the most common Non-Fluent form of Aphasia?
- Broca's aphasia
68
Explain Broca's Aphasia
- Patients understand speech and know what they want to say
- People frequently speak in short phrases produced with great effort
69
What is Anomic Aphasia also known as?
- dysnomia
- nominal aphasia
- amnesic aphasia
70
Explain Anomic Aphasia
- mild, fluent type of aphasia
- Word retrieval failures
- cannot express the words they want to say (nouns/verbs)
71
Where are the lesions located that are associated with Anomic Aphasia?
- Wide range of areas in the left hemisphere
72
What is Global Aphasia?
- severe communication difficulties with speech understanding and production
73
What causes Global Aphasia?
- Damage to the extensive portions of the language areas
74
Explain Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA)
- neurological syndrome where language capabilities slowly become impaired
75
What is PPA caused by?
- neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer's disease
- Deterioration of brain tissue important for speech and language
76
What are the first symptoms of PPA? what comes after
- problems with speech and language
- Root causes main symptoms
77
What is the goal for treating Aphasia?
- minimizing damage
- Harness neuroplasticity to restore function
- Regain the ability to communicate
78
What are some types of treatment for Aphasia?
- speech-language therapy
- activating remaining language abilities
79
What factors influence recovery of Aphasia?
- brain injury
- area and extent of damage
- age
- health of individual
80
What does the degree of aphasia severity predict about cognitive function?
- executive functioning: problem-solving, working memory, attention, and cognitive control
81
How many adolescents develop mental illness?
- 1/5 : 20%
82
What are the peak years for ADHD development?
- 5-13, high at 8or9
83
What are the peak years of Anxiety Disorder Development?
- 6-15, high around 10
84
What are the peak years of mood disorder development?
- 6-24, highs later side
85
Peak years of development of schizophrenia?
- 13-20, high around 16
86
What are the peak years of development for substance abuse?
14-22, high around 18
87
What are the similarities between mental illness and medical illness?
- biological components and environmental factors
- express (statistical) atypicality
- involve maladaptive (dysfunctional or non-beneficial) physiological processes
88
What are the differences between mental illness and medical illness?
- mental illness substantially alters a person's core self
- mental disorders alter the central domains of identity and social norms
- Mental Illness involves maladaptive behavior and violation of socially-accepted standards more than somatic illnesses
89
What are the Multilevel Stigmatization of Mental Illness?
- Stigma: attitude and belief
- Discrimination: behaviours that result from those attitudes or beliefs
- Structural Stigma: Institutional practices that systematically restrict the rights and opportunities for people living with mental illnesses
90
Explain Structural Stigma
- discriminatory social structures, policies, and legislations
- poor and inadequate quality of mental health services
91
What is Interpersonal Stigma?
- Societal endorsement of negative stigma of mental illness
- leads to development of self-stigma
- usually from lack of knowledge
92
What is Self-Stigma (internalized stigma)?
- Accepting mental illness stereotypes about self
- usually accompanied by feelings of shame
93
What are the most common stigmas of mental illness? who is most affected?
Stigmas
- dangerous
- unpredicatable
- unreliable
Most Affected
- People with Schizophrenia
94
How do mental illness stigmas and discrimination cause harm?
- reduces people seeking help
- promote generalized response patterns
- reinforce misconceptions
- Shape treatment of mental illness (varies across time)
95
What is Keyes Mental Health Continuum?
- Mental illness and mental health are separate
- Dynamic
- Can have good health with illness, vice versa
96
How is Mental Illness diagnosed?
- Using the DSM-5
- based on symptoms profile
97
Why is it hard to diagnose Mental Illness?
- the pathophysiology of mental illness is largely unknown
- mental disorders are complex and dynamic
98
How was/is/will the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness be handled in the past, present, and future?
Past
- Psychoanalysis, the unified study of mind and brain
Present
- Split of Brain and mind, psychiatry (mood/thought) and neurology (brain disorders with clear physiological cause)
Future
- Clinical Neuroscience, Pathophysiology-based diagnosis, treatment and prevention
99
What are the what/how/why that research on etiology and pathophysiology of mental illness seek to understand?
What
- Clinical symptoms of mental illness
How
- Pathophysiology related to mental illness
Why
- Etiology of the mental illness
100
What did brain studies on brain disorders identify?
- high genetic correlation among many psychiatric disorders
- limited shared genetic risk among neurological disorders
- interconnected nature of psychiatric disorders
- highlight the need to refine psychiatric diagnostics
101
What is Schizophrenia?
- severe mental disorder in which people interpret reality differently
- cognitive deficits affect language, executive functions, episodic memory, processing speed, attention inhibition, and sensory processing
- positive and negative symptoms
102
How many people do not receive medical help for psychosis?
- 66%
103
What are some statistics about schizophrenia?
- 0.3-0.7% of the population worldwide
- Onset between 16-30
- Earlier onset for men than for women
104
What is thought to drive the development of schizophrenia?
- Genetic Susceptibility
- early experiential factors
105
What do people with schizophrenia often experience in community settings and mental health institutions?
- Human Rights Violations
106
What are the Main Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia?
- Hallucinations
- Delusions
- Inappropriate/disorganized thought
107
What are the main Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia?
- Affective Flattening
- avolition (absence of motivation)
- Catatonia (motionless)
108
What is required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia?
- two symptoms (as long as one is delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech) for 1 month
109
What neurological alterations has schizophrenia been associated with?
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Cingulate Cortex
- Hippocampus
- Dopaminergic Region
- Dopaminoreceptive Region
110
What happens to the Dopamine levels of people with schizophrenia?
Reduced Dopamine
- Prefrontal Cortex
Increased Dopamine
- Mesolimbic areas (striatum and basal ganglia)
111
What is usually an effective treatment for schizophrenia?
combination of
- Physiological Interventions: medication/ECT
- Psychosocial Interventions: Therapy, and social skills training
- Social Service Support: access to resources and support
112
What are the alterations in brain structure associated with schizophrenia?
- reduction in cortical thickness (frontal and temporal lobes)
- reduction in anterior cingulate on left brain hemisphere
- Left Inferior parietal lobule is smaller than right (normally other way around)
- Reduction of sucortical areas (thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala)
- Thinning corpus callosum
- widespread abnormality in white matter
113
What are the alterations in the functional connectivity associated with schizophrenia?
- reduced connectivities between most networks
114
What are some facts about Depression?
- 5% of adults suffer from depression
- leading cause of disability worldwide
- higher prevalence of major depression in women than men
-
115
What are the Risk Factors of Depression?
- Personal or family history of depression
- major life changes, trauma, or stress
- certain physical illnesses and medications
116
What are the different types of depression? (5)
- Major Depression
- Persistent Depressive Disorder (dysthymia)
- Perinatal Depression
- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
- Depression with symptoms of psychosis
117
What is Major Depression?
- symptoms of depression for at least 2 weeks
- interferes with ability to work, sleep, study, eat
118
What is Persistent Depressive Disorder (dysthymia)?
- less severe depression
- A longer period of time
- at least 2 years
119
What is Perinatal Depression?
- Major depression during pregnancy or after delivery (postpartum depression)
120
What is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?
- pattern of major depressive episodes
- occurs seasonally
- typically in autumn or winter
121
What is Depression with Symptoms of Psychosis?
- Severe depression with symptoms of delusion and/or hallucinations
122
What are some common symptoms of Depression?
- Sad, anxious, empty mood
- Hopelessness, pessimism
- irritabiltiy, frustration, restlessness
- guilt, worthlessness, helplessness
- loss of interest
- decrease energy
- difficulty concentrating
- difficulty sleeping
- change in appetite
- thoughts of suicide
- aches, pain, headaches, cramps, digestive problems
123
What are 3 Theories of Depression?
- Monoamine Theory of Depression
- Neuroplasticity Theory of Depression
- Cortico-limbic dysregulation Model
124
How does the monoamine theory of depression explain depression?
- depression associated with under activity at serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses
125
How do SSRIs work?
- Block reuptake of serotonin to allow longer activation of nerves
126
How does the Neuroplasticity Theory of Depression explain depression?
- results from a decrease of neuroplastic processes in various brain structures, leading to neuron loss
127
How do antidepressants work?
- enhance connectivity in neuronal network
- can have long term changes to synapses and dendrites
128
How does the Cortico-Limbic Dysregulation Model explain depression?
- Hyperactivity of limbic and ventromedial prefrontal system
- override of dorsal cortical control, which intensifies negative emotional processing
129
What are some alterations in brain structure due to depression? Imbalances, activity levels and volumes
imbalances
- excessive cortisol
- Cortical activation
- Neuronal connectivity
- High amygdala activity
decreased volume
- gray matter in selective brain structures
- Hippocampus
Higher volume
- Insula (gray matter)
130
What are the options for Treating Depression?
- Medication (antidepressants)
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
- Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
- Cognitive and Emotional Therapy
- Physical and Mental Exercise
- Activating Social Support Systems
131
What does the amygdala do to the hypothalamus in response to stressful events?
- sends distress signal to activate brain's survival mode
132
What does the Hypothalamus do following a signal from the Amygdala during stressful situations?
- activates two systems: the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenocortical system
- initiates the fight or flight response
133
What is the difference between fear, anxiety and worry?
Fear: emotional response to a clear and immediate danger
Anxiety: response to a potential situation, more emotional than cognitive
Worry: Cognitive processing and thinking about negative things that might happen, more cognitive than emotional
134
What is an Anxiety Disorder?
- Chronic Fear that persists in the absence of any direct threat and disrupts the functioning
- Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent of all psychiatric disorders
135
What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?
- Anxiety of many different activities/events
136
What are Specific Phobias?
- Anxieties about particular objects or situations
137
What is agoraphobia?
- Pathological anxiety of public places and open spaces
138
What are Panic Disorders?
- Recurrent episodes of extreme fear and severe symptoms of stress
139
What types of anxiety disorders can include panic attacks?
all of them
140
What are some alterations in brain function associated with an anxiety disorder?
- decreased hippocampal activity
- Increase in Amygdala activity
- Decrease in ability of PFC to regulate attention, action, and affect
141
What happens to Threat and Anxiety during anxiety disorders?
- Disconnection
142
What do high levels of cortisol levels do?
damage the brain
143
What happens to the anxious state during a anxiety disorder?
- becomes the default
144
What are some treatments for Anxiety Disorders?
- Psychotherapy: CBT, exposure therapy
- Medications: antidepressants, antianxiety
145
What is Euthymia?
- Someone with bipolar disorder who is neither depressed nor manic
146
What is Hypomania characterized by?
- Persistent mild elevation of mood
- increased energy and activity
- Marked feeling of well-being and both physical and mental efficiency
- Increased sociability and talkativeness
- Increased sexual energy
- Decreased need for sleep
- No hallucinations or delusions
147
What is the DSM Criteria of Bipolar II?
- At least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode
- Never any manic episodes
148
What are the symptoms of a manic episode?
- Inflated Self-esteem or grandiosity
- decreased need for sleep
- more talkative, pressure to keep talking
- Flight of ideas
- distractibility
- Increase in Goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation
- Excessive involvement in activities with high consequences
149
What is the DSM 5 Criteria for a manic episode?
3+ symptoms present to a significant degree for at least 1 week
150
What is the DSM 5 criteria for bipolar disorder?
- same as bipolar II but includes manic episodes (with one form of psychosis)
151
What are some common misconceptions about Bipolar disorder?
- Psychosis does not equal psychopathy
- Bipolar individuals are less likely to carry out crime
- same is true for most psychiatric diagnoses
152
What is Mixed State of bipolar disorder?
- Mania with depression
153
Who gets Bipolar Disorder?
1% global population
- 0.6% bipolar I
- 0.4% bipolar II
Runs in family
154
Why do people get Bipolar Disorder?
- No one Knows
155
What are the Highest Risks for individuals with Bipolar Disorder?
- High rate of recurrence
- Often lifelong condition
- Unmedicated, progresses to more severe level
- High Risk Suicide attempts, 33-50%
- Highest risk for completed suicide, 20x higher than general population
- 6th leading cause of disability 15-44 years
- hard to maintain treatment
156
Name some comorbid psychiatric and non-psychriatic illnesses that commonly occur alongside Bipolar Disorders?(7)
- Anxiety Disorders
- Substance Use Disorders
- Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
- Personality Disorders
- Migraine
- Cardiovascular Disorders
- Endocrine Disorders
157
What are some of the Structural Brain Changes that occur with Bipolar Disorder? (6)
- Overall Reduction in Gray Matter
- Smaller Medial Prefrontal Cortex (other prefrontal regions)
- Smaller Left Anterior Cingulate Cortex
- Smaller Left Superior Temporal Gyrus
- Smaller Hippocampus
- Increased Striatal Volume
158
What are some of the Functional Brain Changes for people with Bipolar Disorder?
- Reduced activity
- ACC
- DMPFC
- DLPFC
(reduced cognitive control)
Increased Activation
- amygdala
- Ventral ACC
- VLPFC
The circuitry involved in emotional regulation
159
What are some Cognitive Changes of someone with Bipolar Disorder?
- Impairments in executive function
- Impairments in cognitive function involving emotional stimuli
160
According to prospective studies, What can impairments in Executive Function be used to predict?
- onset of bipolar disorder in those at risk
161
Are there any Non-pharmacological treatments for Bipolar Disorder?
- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy may have some benefits during depressive phases, but nothing during mania or hypomania
162
What are some of the objectives of using Psychosocial Interventions for Bipolar Disorder? (8)
- Early Identification
- Increase Acceptance
- Adherence to Drug Regimens
- Cope with Environmental Stressors
- Stabilize Sleep/Wake Rhythms
- Re-engage with social, familial, occupational roles
- Enhance Family relationships
- Reduce Alcohol/Drug misuse
163
What Pharmacological Treatments are used for individuals with bipolar disorder?
- Antidepressants: for depression
- Antipsychotic: for mania or hypomania
- Mood Stabilizers: to reduce shifts in mood
164
What are the different types of Mood Stabilizers?
- Lithium
- Certain Anticonvulsants
- Certain Atypical Antipsychotics
165
What are some stats on Aphasia?
- 21-38% of stroke victims experience Aphasia
- Associated with higher mortality, morbidity, healthcare resources consumed
- Social Isolation
166
What is the Dual Stream Theory of Language?
- Dorsal Stream: production and articulation
- Ventral Stream: Sound to meaning
167
What is the support for the Dual Stream Theory of Language?
- Vertically oriented columns of neurons perpendicular to the cortex
168
What is the Ventral Stream Projection?
- Ventro-laterally
- Involves cortex in Superior Temporal Sulcus and Posterior Inferior Temporal Lobe
- Bilaterally Organized
- Limited speech recognition deficits with unilateral temporal lobe damage
169
what is the Dorsal Stream Projection?
- Dorso-posteriorly
- Towards Parietal Lobe and Frontal regions
- Strongly Left Dominant
- Unilateral Frontal and dorsal Temporal lesions cause speech production deficits
170
Is the Ventral Stream or the Dorsal Stream associated with Time-independent processing?
- Ventral
171
Is the ventral or dorsal stream associated with Time-dependent processing?
- Dorsal
172
According to the Extended Argument Dependency Model of Language, what does the Ventral Stream do?
- Extracts meaning independently of temporal or spacial sequences of linguistic elements
173
According to the Extended Argument Dependency Model, what does the Dorsal Stream do?
- Analyzes sequences of segments in time and space and integrates sensorimotor input to support production
174
What does the Dual Lexicon Framework explain?
- how and where words are stored
175
According to the Dual Lexicon Framework what does Ventral Lexicon do?
- interface between phonetic and semantic representations
- Retains morphologically organized representations of words
- links acoustic-phonetic to semantic content
176
According to the Dual Lexicon Framework what does the Dorsal Lexicon do?
- Interface between phonetic and articulatory representations
- Houses articulatory organized-word for representations
177
What is Visual Aphasia?
- Cannot name item from visual confrontations
- Preserved naming to verbal description
178
What is Optic Aphasia?
- No semantic representation from the structural description
- Full access to semantics from tactile cues
179
What is Anomia?
- Intact semantic representation
- Cannot access phonological and/or orthographic representations
- Semantic and phonemic errors during convergent and divergent naming tasks
- Intact error awareness
180
What are some treatments for aphasia?
- Transcranial Direct Current stimulation: synaptic plasticity
- repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: increases or decreases targeted cortical area
- Evidence based patient-centered approach
- intense/short period > less intense/longperiod
181
Why is it hard to diagnose psychiatric disorders?
- Same disorder have different symptoms
- Different disorders have same symptoms
182
What is a Positive Symptom of Schizophrenia?
- Symptoms that seem to represent an excess of typical function
183
What is a Negative Symptom of Schizophrenia?
- Symptoms that have a reduction or loss of typical function
184
What are the types of Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia?
- Delusions
- Hallucinations
- Inappropriate Affect
- Disorganized Speech or Thought
- Odd Behaviour
185
What are the different types of Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia?
- Affective Flattening
- Avolition
- Catatonia
186
What were some of the first Antipsychotic Drugs Used to Treat Schizophrenia?
- Chlorpromazine
- Reserpine
187
Describe Chlorpromazine?
- Discovered in 1950s
- Had calming effect on patients
- Alleviates the symptoms of Schizophrenia
188
Describe Reserpine
- Active ingredient in snakeroot plant used in India for mental illness
- Produces dangerous decline in blood pressure
- No Longer Used
189
What are some similarities between Chlorpromazine and Reserpine?
- Effects take 2-3 weeks for the medication to work
- Associated with motor effects similar to Parkinson's disease
190
What did the discovery of low dopamine's impact on parkinson's disease do to the theory of schizophrenia?
- Lead to the Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia
- Effective treatments for schizophrenia had side effects similar to Parkinson's Disease
191
What was the support for the Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia?
- Antipsychotic drug reserpine is known to deplete dopamine levels
- Amphetamine and cocaine increase dopamine levels, can trigger schizophrenic episodes
- Chlorpromazine binds to dopamine receptors, preventing them from activating
192
What were some Revisions to the Original Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia?
- High activity of Dopamine Receptors is the cause, not high levels of dopamine
- D2 receptors being more responsible than other receptors
193
What are some other treatments for schizophrenia besides typical antipsychotic meds? how do they work?
Atypical Antipsychotics
- clozapine
- aripiprazole
- risperidone
- quetiapine
How
- strong affinity for D2 receptors
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Why was there interest in Hallucinogenic Drugs for treating Schizophrenia?
- hallucinogenic drugs mimic symptoms of illness
- Psychedelics that produce feelings of boundlessness, unity, and bliss has potential to treat psychiatric disorders
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What did continued research on hallucinogens in the 1990's reveal?
- Psychedelic effects that mimic positive symptoms of schizophrenia by agonizing serotonin type-2a receptors
- Antagonists of the serotonin type-2a receptor are effective antipsychotics (risperidone)
- Dissociative hallucinogens mimic negative symptoms of schizophrenia by acting as antagonist of glutamate receptors
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What are the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of Schizophrenia?
Expression of Schizophrenia-related genes
- impacts brain development and myelination
- changes in dopaminergic neuron physiology
- transmission at glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses
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What are some Factors Linked to Schizophrenia? (6)
- Birth Complications
- Material Stress
- Prenatal Infections
- Socioeconomic Factors
- Urban Birth/ Residing
- Childhood Adversity
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What is the support for the Neurodevelopmental Theory of Schizophrenia?
- Schizophrenia and ASD share many causal factors (genetic risk, environmental triggers)
- Famines in the 20th century led to increased schizophrenia in children whose mothers were effected
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What are four important findings for the theory of neural bases of schizophrenia?
- Undiagnosed, at-risk individuals display volume reductions in parts of their brain
- Extensive brain changes already occur in patients who seek medical treatment
- Brain changes continue to develop
- Alterations to different brain regions occur at different rates
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What are two research views towards functional connectivity changes with Schizophrenia?
- Changes in connectivity between hallucinating and non-hallucinating states
- Intrinsic Functional Connectivity might be used to predict treatment response to antipsychotic meds
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What is Anhedonia?
- The loss of the capacity to experience pleasure
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What difficulties do people with Depression Experience?
- Keeping a job
- Maintaining healthy eating
- Maintaining social contacts
- maintaining personal hygiene
- sleep disturbances
- Thoughts fo suicide
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How is Clinical Depression Diagnosed?
- when conditions last for 2 weeks or longer
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What are the Two categories of depression?
- Reactive Depression: triggered by obvious negative experience
- Endogenous Depression: No apparent Cause
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What are some Facts about Depression?
- 2-5% of the global population
- Women are twice as likely to receive a diagnosis of depression
- Non-caucasian more susceptible
- 4-15% of diagnosed commit suicide
- Attacks people of all ages
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What do people with depression often also suffer from?
- Anxiety disorders
- coronary heart disease
- diabetes
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What are two subtypes of Major Depressive Disorder?
- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
- Peripartum Depression
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Describe Seasonal Affective Disorder
- Depression and lethargy Typically during particular seasons
- Triggered by a reduction in sunlight
- Higher occurrence in Alaska than Florida
- Light Therapy is often effective in Reducing Symptoms
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Explain Peripartum Depression
- Intense, sustained depression experienced by women during pregnancy, or after birth
- about 13% of pregnancies
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What is Postpartum Depression?
- a subtype of Peripartum depression
- specifically after birth
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What are the 5 major classes of antidepressant drugs?
- Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
- Tricyclic Antidepressants
- Selective Monoamine-reuptake Inhibitors
- Atypical Antidepressants
- NMDA-receptor Antagonists
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What was the first antidepressant drug? what type is it?
Iproniazid
- Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors
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How does Iproniazid work?
- increases monoamines levels
- Inhibits monoamine oxidase, which breaks downs monamine neurotransmitters
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What are some side effects of Iproniazid and other Monamine Oxidase Inhibitors?
- Cheese Effect: Inability to break down tyramine(found in foods)
- High risk of stroke due to surges in blood pressure caused by elevated levels of tyramine
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What is an example of a Tricyclic Antidepressant?
- Imipramine
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How does Imipramine work?
- Blocks reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine
- increases levels in brain
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What are Selective Monoamine-Reuptake Inhibitors?
- Selectively suppress the reuptake of monamines in synapses
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What was the first SSRIs?
- Fluoxetine
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Why are SSRIs popular?
- Fewer side effects to tricyclics and MAO inhibitors
- Work for a wide range of psychological disorders
- Led to the development of SNRIs
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What are Atypical Antidepressants? How do they Work?
- They are used to treat depression
- have many different modes of action
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What are NMDA-Receptor Antagonists? How do they work?
They are used to treat depression
- they antagonize the glutamate NMDA receptor
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What is an example of an NMDA-Receptor Antagonist? What does it do? Why is it not commonly used?
Ketamine
- small doses rapidly reduce depression
- undesirable side effects
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What are two types of treatment for depression that involve brain stimulation?
- Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
- Deep Brain Stimulation
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Explain Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Used to treat depression
- Non-invasive delivery
- High-frequency (5/s) stimulates cortical areas
- Low-frequency (1/s) inhibits cortical areas
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Explain Deep Brain Stimulation
- Used to treat depression
- Implanted electrode
- Continual Pulses that stimulate cortical areas
- Undetectable by patient
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What are the 3 theories of Depression?
- Monoamine theory
- Neuroplasticity theory
- Brain-Deprived Neurotropic Factor
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Explain the Monamine Theory of Depression
- Underactivity of Serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses cause depression
- Based on successful treatments
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What is Up-regulation, how does it support the monoamine theory of depression?
Up-regulation
- more receptors to compensate for fewer neurotransmitters
Support
- seen in people with depression
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What are some challenges to the Monoamine Theory of Depression?
- Monoamine agonists are not effective for most depressed patients
- Monoamine activity increases right away but takes days or weeks to work
- Discovered other neurotransmitters play role in development of depression
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Describe the Neuroplasticity Theory of Depression
- Depression results from a decrease in the Neuroplastic process in various brain structures
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What is the support for the Neuroplasticity Theory of Depression?
- Stress and Depression are associated with disruption of neuroplastic processes
- successful treatment of depression from antidepressants that enhance neuroplastic processes
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Explain Brain Deprived Neurotropic Factor (BDNF) and how it relates to a theory on depression.
BDNF
- biomarker in blood
Depression
- successful treatments increase BDNF levels
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What are some Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms of Depression?
- Many genes found to contribute to depression
- Considered a complex trait that involves many interactions with environmental factors
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What has Structural Neuroimaging Studies identified about Neural Bases of Depression?
- Consistent reductions in gray matter volumes in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex
- White matter reductions in several brain regions, mainly prefrontal cortex
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What have functional neuroimaging studies identified about the Neural bases of depression?
- Atypical activation in frontal, cingulate, and insular cortices
- Atypical activation in amygdala, thalamus, and striatum
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Describe the differences in Functional Connectivity of someone with depression
- Neural networks markedly different
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What are some facts about Bipolar Disorder?
- Periods of Clinical Depression and periods of hypomania or mania
- about 3% of the global population
- Highest rates of attempted and completed suicide
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Describe the Symptoms of Hypomania?
- Reduced need for sleep
- High Energy
- Positive Affect
- Confidence
- High social energy
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What are the symptoms of Mania?
- Extremes of Hypomania
- Delusions of Grandeur
- Impulsivity
- Distractibility
- Psychosis
- Jumping from topic to topic
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What are some theories on the causes of Bipolar Disorder?
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis dysregulation
- Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms
- Alterations to GABA, glutamate, and dopamine neurotransmission
- BDNF levels lower for both depression and mania
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Describe the Reward Hypersensitivity Theory of Bipolar Disorder
- Dysfunctional brain reward system
- overreacts to rewards/lack of rewards
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What is some evidence to support the Reward Hypersensistivity Theory of Bipolar Disorder?
- Rewarding leads to excessive goal-seeking, hypomania, or mania
- Failer to achieve goals leads to depression and a reduction in reward-seeking
- increased activity in prefrontal and striatal reward circuits
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What are some Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms of Bipolar Disorder?
- Family members are very likely to develop bipolar disorder
- 100s-1000s of genes associated with bipolar disorder
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What have MRI studies identified about neural bases of bipolar disorder?
- cognitive deficits are common
- Overall reduction in gray matter volume
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What areas of the brain have been found to be smaller for people with bipolar disorder?
- medial prefrontal cortex
- left anterior cingulate
- left superior temporal gyrus
- prefrontal regions
- hippocampus
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What have fMRI studies shown about Bipolar Disorder?
- Atypical frontal cortex, medial temporal lobe, and basal ganglia activation
- Atypical functional connectivity between structures in a variety of states
- Functional connectivity differences centered around emotional processing pathways
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What are some facts about anxiety disorders?
14-34% of people suffer from anxiety disorder
- Twice as many in females than males
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What is Anxiety?
- Chronic fear that persists in the absence of any direct threat
- Common correlation with stress
- When disrupts functioning it is a disorder
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What is Anxiety Associated with regarding physiological stress reactions?
- high heartbeat
- high blood pressure
- nausea
- breathing difficulties
- sleep disturbances
- high glucocorticoid levels
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What are Four Anxiety Disorders?
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Specific Phobias
- Agoraphobia
- Panic Disorder
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Describe Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Extreme feelings of anxiety
- worry about a large number of different activities or events
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Describe Specific Phobias
- Strong fear or anxiety about particular objects or situations
- People avoid those situations
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What is AGoraphobia?
Fear of public places and open spaces
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What is Panic Disorder?
recurrent rapid-onset attacks of extreme fear and severe symptoms of stress
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What are the three types of pharmaceuticals used to treat anxiety disorders?
- Benzodiazepines
- Antidepressants
- Pregabalin
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What are two types of Benzodiazepines?
- Librium
- Valium
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How do Benzodiazepines work to treat anxiety disorder?
- Agonistic action on GABA Receptors
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What are some concerning side effects to Benzodiazepines?
- Sedation
- Ataxia (disruption of motor activity)
- Tremor
- Nausea
- Withdrawal Reaction (includes rebound anxiety)
- Highly addictive
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How do Pregabalin Drugs work to Treat Anxiety Disorders?
- Modulate Voltage-gated Calcium Channels
- effective for generalized anxiety disorder
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What are the Three types of Animal Behaviour we study to model Anxiety?
- Elevated-plus-maze performance
- Defensive Burying
- Risk Assessment
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Have there been any Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms of Anxiety Disorders?
- No genes identified
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What is the difference between brain structures involved in both Major Depressive Disorder and Anxiety Disorders?
- There is no significant atrophy in Anxiety Disorders
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What are the overlaps in brain structures involved in both major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders?
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
