Quiz 3 - MC

Question 1

Describe the behavioural study on interocular suppression, demonstrating how subliminal visual stimulus influences our behaviour.

Answer 1

Interocular suppression involves presenting different images to each eye, causing one image to dominate conscious perception while the other is suppressed. Studies show that subliminal stimuli can influence behaviours, such as preferences and choices, even without conscious awareness.

Question 2

Describe an fMRI study demonstrating neural competition for conscious perception during binocular rivalry.

Answer 2

Binocular rivalry occurs when each eye is presented with a different image, and perception alternates between them. fMRI studies show that during this rivalry, neural competition occurs, with different brain areas activated depending on the perceived image.

Question 3

Describe “mind wandering” and the brain’s default mode network. Discuss how the default mode network can be studied and how it relates to different mental states and mental health.

Answer 3

Mind wandering refers to the brain’s shift from focused tasks to spontaneous thoughts. The DMN is active during rest and self-referential thoughts. It can be studied using fMRI and is linked to creativity, mental disorders like depression, and cognitive functions.

Question 4

Compare Freud’s conception of unconsciousness with the modern view.

Answer 4

Freud’s view: The unconscious mind contains desires and memories influencing behavior. Modern view: The unconscious includes automatic processes like biases and procedural memory, playing a role in behavior and decision-making.

Question 5

Describe how unconsciousness influences our behaviours and decision-making (e.g., priming and subliminal perception).

Answer 5

unconscious influences

priming: exposure to one stimulus influences response to another
subliminal perception: processing information below conscious awareness

Question 6

Describe the stages of sleep

Answer 6

NREM 1: Light sleep, muscle activity slows. NREM 2: Heart rate slows, temperature drops. NREM 3: Deep sleep, restorative processes occur. REM sleep: Brain activity similar to wakefulness, dreaming occurs, body is paralyzed.

Question 7

Compare the two different views of why we dream.

Answer 7

Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random brain activity. Information-Processing Theory: Dreams help process daily experiences and memories.

Question 8

Categorize psychoactive drugs and identify their effects on the body.

Answer 8

Depressants (e.g., alcohol): Slow down CNS activity. Stimulants (e.g., cocaine): Increase CNS activity. Opioids (e.g., heroin): Pain relief. Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD): Alter perceptions.

Question 9

Describe and differentiate different disorders of consciousness (in the context of wakefulness): coma, vegetative state, and minimally consciousness state. Contrast these disorders with locked-in syndrome.

Answer 9

Coma: Unconscious, no wakefulness. Vegetative State: Wakefulness without awareness. Minimally Conscious State: Some awareness. Locked-In Syndrome: Full awareness, paralysis of voluntary muscles except for eye movements.

Question 10

Describe philosophical thought experiments on the zombie problem and Chinese room problem. Describe the main idea of the Turing test.

Answer 10

Zombie Problem: Imagines beings behaving like humans without consciousness. Chinese Room Problem: Argues that computers can appear to understand language without true comprehension. Turing Test: Assesses if a machine’s behavior is indistinguishable from a human’s.

Question 11

Describe the four basic properties of consciousness.

Answer 11

Intentionality: Directed towards an object. Unity: Integrates information into a coherent whole. Selectivity: Focuses on certain stimuli. Transience: Tendency to change focus.

Question 12

Describe the Libet test and what its results suggest about the conscious mind.

Answer 12

The Libet test found that brain activity precedes conscious intention to act by about 200 milliseconds, suggesting unconscious processes initiate actions before conscious awareness.

Question 13

Compare the three levels of consciousness.

Answer 13

Conscious: Awareness of thoughts and environment. Preconscious: Information not currently in awareness but can be brought to consciousness. Unconscious: Reservoir of feelings, thoughts, and memories outside of conscious awareness.

Question 14

Identify the types of sleep disorders.

Answer 14

Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep. Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep. Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks. Sleepwalking: Performing activities while asleep.

Question 15

Describe the three key processes of memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Answer 15

Encoding: Processing information for storage. Storage: Maintaining information over time. Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Question 16

Describe three different ways of encoding and characterize three major stages of memory storage.

Answer 16

Visual Encoding: Encoding images. Acoustic Encoding: Encoding sounds. Semantic Encoding: Encoding meanings. Stages: Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.

Question 17

Compare iconic memory and echoic memory; describe one study paradigm that allows for measuring iconic memory properly. Discuss the purpose of sensory memory.

Answer 17

Iconic memory: Visual, lasts ~0.5 seconds. Echoic memory: Auditory, lasts ~3-4 seconds. Sperling’s partial report paradigm measures iconic memory. Sensory memory holds information briefly for initial processing.

Question 18

Describe the serial position effect. Discuss how chunking and rehearsal contribute to short-term memory (or working memory). Compare short-term memory and working memory.

Answer 18

Serial Position Effect: Better recall of first and last items. Chunking groups information, rehearsal repeats it. Short-term Memory: Temporary storage. Working Memory: Active processing and manipulation of information.

Question 19

Discuss what the case studies of the patient HM taught us. Contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

Answer 19

HM taught us about memory consolidation. Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories. Retrograde amnesia: Loss of past memories.

Question 20

Describe the idea of long-term potentiation.

Answer 20

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is the strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, playing a crucial role in learning and memory consolidation.

Question 21

Explain transfer-appropriate processing. Describe how external context cues (for context-dependent memory) and inner state cues (for state-dependent memory) help retrieval.

Answer 21

Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Memory performance is enhanced when encoding and retrieval processes match. Context-dependent memory: External environment aids retrieval. State-dependent memory: Internal state aids retrieval.

Question 22

Contrast recall and recognition.

Answer 22

Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay test). Recognition: Identifying information from options (e.g., multiple-choice test).

Question 23

Describe three consequences of retrieval.

Answer 23

Retrieval strengthens memory, causes forgetting of related info, and alters retrieved memory (reconsolidation).

Question 24

Overview the hierarchical structure of the memory system and describe each component.

Answer 24

Sensory Memory: Brief sensory information. Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity, temporary. Long-Term Memory: Extended storage. Components: Episodic, semantic, procedural memory.

Question 25

Contrast explicit memory and implicit memory.

Answer 25

Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and events. Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills and conditioned responses.

Question 26

Describe the seven “sins” of memory. Discuss how these seven “sins” can be vices or virtues.

Answer 26

Sins: Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence. They can filter out irrelevant info and update memory but also lead to errors.

Question 27

Discuss various factors (e.g., depth of processing, emotion, traumatic events, depression) that determine memory outcomes and function.

Answer 27

Depth of processing enhances memory. Emotionally charged events and trauma create vivid memories. Depression can impair memory.

Question 28

Describe déjà vu experiences.

Answer 28

Déjà vu is a feeling of familiarity with something that shouldn’t be familiar, possibly linked to temporal lobe activity and memory processing.

Question 29

Discuss factors that determine short-term memory or working memory capacity.

Answer 29

Attention, rehearsal strategies, individual differences, and cognitive load influence working memory capacity.

Question 30

Define “learning” and contrast two different forms of learning: habituation and sensitization.

Answer 30

Learning: Change in behavior due to experience. Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimulus. Sensitization: Increased response to a stimulus.

Question 31

Describe classical conditioning. Define neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in the context of classical conditioning.

Answer 31

Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations. Neutral Stimulus: No initial response. Unconditioned Stimulus: Naturally triggers response. Unconditioned Response: Natural reaction. Conditioned Stimulus: Learned response trigger. Conditioned Response: Learned reaction.

Question 32

Discuss three principles for successful classical conditioning.

Answer 32

Contiguity: Timing between stimuli. Contingency: Predictive relationship. Frequency: Number of pairings.

Question 33

Use classical conditioning terms and procedures to explain how we may acquire phobias. Describe the example of the “Little Albert experiment.”

Answer 33

Phobias can be acquired by pairing a neutral stimulus with an aversive unconditioned stimulus. Little Albert experiment: A child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

Question 34

Describe how the classical conditioning framework is used in behavioural therapies.

Answer 34

Classical conditioning is used in exposure therapy and systematic desensitization to treat phobias by gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli while employing relaxation techniques.

Question 35

Describe how second-order conditioning occurs.

Answer 35

Second-order conditioning occurs when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

Question 36

Define acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery regarding temporal changes in classical conditioning outcomes. Define generalization and discrimination as a result of learning.

Answer 36

Acquisition: Learning phase where the conditioned response is established. Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response. Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of conditioned response. Generalization: Similar stimuli elicit response. Discrimination: Differentiating stimuli.

Question 37

Describe Operant conditioning. Contrast reinforcement and punishment. Define positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment in the context of operant conditioning.

Answer 37

Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences. Positive Reinforcement: Presenting pleasant stimulus. Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimulus. Positive Punishment: Presenting unpleasant stimulus. Negative Punishment: Removing pleasant stimulus.

Question 38

Describe the effect of time (e.g., delay of outcomes) on the learning outcomes through operant conditioning.

Answer 38

Delays between action and consequence weaken learning as immediate consequences are more effective in reinforcing behavior.

Question 39

Define primary and secondary reinforcers.

Answer 39

Primary Reinforcers: Innately satisfying (e.g., food). Secondary Reinforcers: Learned value (e.g., money).

Question 40

Contrast operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

Answer 40

Operant Conditioning: Behavior shaped by consequences (reinforcement/punishment). Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations between stimuli.

Question 41

Compare different schedules of reinforcement.

Answer 41

Fixed Ratio: Set number of responses. Variable Ratio: Varying number of responses. Fixed Interval: Set amount of time. Variable Interval: Varying time intervals.

Question 42

Describe how we shape behaviours through successive approximations.

Answer 42

Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior to gradually guide behavior towards the target.

Question 43

Discuss biological and evolutionary aspects of operant conditioning. Provide evidence for biological preparedness.

Answer 43

Biological Preparedness: Organisms are predisposed to learn associations that enhance survival. Evidence: Taste aversion studies show animals quickly learn to avoid foods that cause illness.

Question 44

Explain how superstitious behaviour may be learned.

Answer 44

Superstitious behavior can be learned through random reinforcement, where individuals incorrectly associate a behavior with an outcome.

Question 45

Describe three different types of social-cognitive learning.

Answer 45

Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. Imitation: Copying others’ behavior. Modeling: Demonstrating behavior for others to learn.

Question 46

Describe the Bobo doll study and discuss what it tells us about observational learning and modelling. Discuss how observational learning enables us to create group behaviours (e.g., culture); describe neural elements of observational learning.

Answer 46

Bobo Doll Study: Children imitated aggressive behaviors observed in adults. Shows the role of observational learning in developing social behaviors and cultural norms. Neural elements: Mirror neurons facilitate imitation and learning.

Question 47

Describe one behavioural paradigm for studying implicit learning. Characterize implicit learning and contrast it with explicit learning.

Answer 47

Implicit Learning: Learning without conscious awareness. Example: Serial reaction time task. Implicit learning occurs without intentional effort, while explicit learning involves conscious awareness and intention.

Question 48

Describe different forms of dysfunction related to language ability.

Answer 48

Aphasia: Language impairment (e.g., Broca’s aphasia affects speech production, Wernicke’s aphasia affects comprehension). Dyslexia: Difficulty with reading. Specific Language Impairment: Delays in language development.

Question 49

Summarize two different views of language development. Describe behavioural patterns observed in children during language development (e.g., fast mapping of word learning, telegraphic speech, overgeneralization of grammatical rules).

Answer 49

Nativist View: Language ability is innate. Empiricist View: Language is learned through interaction. Patterns: Fast mapping, telegraphic speech, overgeneralization of grammatical rules.

Question 50

Describe the segmentation problem, top-down influences (e.g., phonemic restoration), and categorical perception in speech processing.

Answer 50

Segmentation Problem: Difficulty distinguishing words in continuous speech. Top-Down Influences: Context fills in missing sounds (phonemic restoration). Categorical Perception: Perceiving sounds as distinct categories.

Question 51

Describe the neural basis of language; Summarize the motor theory of speech perception and explain the two-pathway hypothesis.

Answer 51

Motor Theory: Speech perception involves motor processes. Two-Pathway Hypothesis: Dorsal pathway (speech production), ventral pathway (speech comprehension). Neural basis: Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.

Question 52

Describe three different types of bilingualism and discuss some cognitive and neural aspects of bilingualism.

Answer 52

Types: Simultaneous (from birth), Sequential (after first language), Compound (same context). Cognitive aspects: Enhanced flexibility. Neural aspects: Distinct networks.

Question 53

Discuss how language affects how we think.

Answer 53

Linguistic relativity: Language influences perception and categorization, such as color terminology affecting color discrimination.

Question 54

Contrast prototype theory and exemplar theory of concepts and categories.

Answer 54

Prototype Theory: Concepts based on a typical member. Exemplar Theory: Concepts based on specific examples.

Question 55

Contrast algorism and heuristics.

Answer 55

Algorithms: Systematic, step-by-step methods. Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb.

Question 56

Discuss how mental set and functional fixedness affect problem-solving and creativity.

Answer 56

Mental Set: Approaching problems with previously successful strategies. Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects, hindering creativity.

Question 57

Describe the classical view of rational decision-making and criticize it by providing examples of irrational decision-making patterns (e.g., bias, heuristics, fallacy, etc.).

Answer 57

Classical View: Logical, systematic decision-making. Irrational Patterns: Biases (confirmation bias), heuristics (availability heuristic), fallacies (gambler’s fallacy) lead to irrational decisions.