Quiz 3 Ch 6 and 7 Flashcards
1
Q
transduction
A
the process of converting the physical properties of external stimuli like light and sound to changes in the nervous system like the rate of action potentials
2
Q
electromagnetic spectrum
A
The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation is often denoted as different wavelengths. Visible light has a range of about four hundred nm to seven hundred nm wavelengths.
3
Q
Cornea
A
clear outer space of the eye that bends light and is responsible for 80 percent of focus images. It protects the eye
4
Q
lens
A
responsible for controlling the remaining 20- 30 percent of the eyes focusing power. Clear structure in the middle of the eye that can be bent with ciliary muscles to change how light is focused on the retina.
5
Q
accommodation
A
the act of focusing on the image (light) on the retina.
6
Q
retina
A
Layers of cells at the back of the eye include photoreceptor cells, intermediate cells, and ganglion cells. It is where transduction takes place.
( back of the eye)
7
Q
ganglion cells
A
Cells in the retina get information from intermediate cells and photoreceptor cells. The axons of the ganglion cells make up the optic nerve
8
Q
rods
A
Photoreceptor cells that are found primarily in the periphery of the retina. They are responsible for scotopic vision.
9
Q
cones
A
Photoreceptor cells are found with the greatest density in the fovea of the retina. They are
responsible for photopic vision.
10
Q
Amacrine cells
A
trinsic interneurons of the inner retina representing the most diverse class of neurons in the retina. Generally they receive synaptic input from bipolar cells and other amacrines, and in turn provide input to amacrine and ganglion cells as well as feedback to bipolar cells.
11
Q
Horizontal cells
A
Horizontal cells modulate the output of photoreceptors and play many roles in early visual processing contributing to contrast enhancement, colour opponency, and the generation of centre–surround receptive fields in cone photoreceptors (cones) and BCs.
12
Q
Photopic vision
A
part of the visual system responsible for processing detail and color. Works best in high-intensity light. The cones are responsible for beginning photopic vision, but areas of the thalamus and visual cortex are involved as well.
13
Q
fovea
A
Small portion of the center of the retina. It is highly populated with cones and is where we focus on an image.
14
Q
scotopic vision
A
Part of the visual system is responsible for movement and seeing in low light. The rods are primarily responsible for scotopic vision, but areas of the thalamus and visual cortex are also involved
15
Q
Myopia
A
Also known as
nearsightedness, it is caused by an image that is focused at a point before the retina
16
Q
Hyperopia
A
Also known as farsightedness, it is caused by an image being focused past the retina.
17
Q
Trichromatic theory
A
A theory of color vision that assumes there are three types of cones, which are sensitive to different wavelengths of light. There are blue, green, and red cones
18
Q
Opponent process theory
A
A second theory of color vision that assumes cells in the retina and thalamus send two different signals if they are excited or inhibited. For example, there are blue/yellow ganglion cells that send a signal for blue when excited but yellow when inhibited.
19
Q
Lateral inhibition
A
A process in the retina where intermediate cells accentuate transitions between light and dark by inhibiting neurons next to them. Highlighting edges in this way is the first stage in visual processing.
20
Q
Receptive field
A
This is a broad term referring to all cells in the visual system that
influence another cell. For example, a ganglion cell is influenced by many photoreceptor cells in its round receptive field.
21
Q
Center-surround
A
The type of receptive field that looks like a circle within a circle, or a donut. The inner circle responds differently to light than the outer circle.
22
Q
On-center ganglion cell
A
This ganglion cell
responds most when light strikes the center of its receptive field and is inhibited when light strikes the periphery.
23
Q
Off-center ganglion cells
A
These ganglion cells respond the most when light strikes the periphery and are inhibited when light strikes the center.
24
Q
Visual pathway
A
consists of the retina, optic nerves, optic chiasm, optic tracts, lateral geniculate bodies, optic radiations, and visual cortex. The pathway is, effectively, part of the central nervous system
25
Lateral geniculate nucleus
A nucleus on either side of the thalamus that gets information from ganglion cells of the retina, and sends information to the primary visual cortex.
26
Retinotopic map
The fact that the location of cells in the LGN and primary visual cortex correspond to a map of the retina.
27
P-cells
A type of ganglion cell that gets information from the fovea and sends information to the parvocellular layer in the LGN.
28
Parvocellular layers
Layers 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the LGN, which get information from P-ganglion cells and process color, shapes, and details.
29
M-cells
A type of ganglion cell that primarily gets information from rods in the periphery of the retina and sends signals to the
magnocellular layer of the LGN
30
Magnocellular layer
Layers 1 and 2 of the LGN, which get information from M-ganglion cells and processes information about movement and low-intensity ligh
31
Simple cells
Cells of the primary visual cortex that have
rectangular receptive fields and are sensitive to lines of specific orientations.
32
Neuronal tuning
The hypothesis that individual brain cells are tuned to specific stimuli. In the visual system, a cell might be tuned to a line of a specific orientation presented on its receptive field
33
Primary visual cortex/Striate cortex/V1
This is the area of the
occipital lobe that gets the first information from the LGN. It is also called V1 or the striate cortex.
34
Complex cells
Cells of the primary visual cortex that get information from simple cells. Complex cells respond selectively to lines of specific orientation that move in specific direction
35
Hypercomplex cells
Cells in the primary visual cortex that receive information from simple cells and complex cells. Hypercomplex cells respond to lines with specific orientations, angles, and lengths.
36
Dorsal stream
A visual pathway that starts in the magnocellular layer of the LGN and then travels through V1, V2, V3, V5, and then to the parietal lobe. It is thought to be responsible for the perception of movement.
37
Ventral stream
A visual pathway that starts in the parvocellular layer of the LGN and then travels to V1, V2, V4, and finally to the inferior temporal lobe. It is
important in the perception of color and object recognition.
38
Inferior temporal lobe
Area of the temporal lobe with cells that are “tuned” to responding to complex shapes and faces.
39
Medial temporal lobe
Area of the temporal lobe that is V5 in the dorsal stream visual pathway. The MT serves many functions in perception and memory but also plays a role in motion perception.
40
Primary cells
Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond to simple shapes like squares, spots, and ellipses.
41
Elaborate cells
Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond selectively to complex shapes, colors, and textures.
42
Fusiform gyrus
area of the inferior temporal lobe that contains cells that selectively respond to shapes, textures, and faces.
43
Face-selective cells
Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond to faces of a specific orientation. There may also be face-selective cells that respond to important people to you like “grandmother cells” or famous people like a “Jennifer Aniston” ce
44
Prosopagnosia
A visual perception difficulty in which people have trouble recognizing faces. This can be caused by damage to specific areas of the fusiform gyrus.
45
Linear process
The theory that visual perception goes from simple (line) to complex (shape) in one direction, with each stage building on the previous.
46
Parallel processing
The theory that visual perception is the product of many areas of the visual system working and affecting each other. For example, cells of the V1 affect and are affected by V2, V3, V4, etc.
47
Olfactory system
The sense of touch, sight, and hearing all must send signals through the thalamus before the infor-mation is processed by the cortex. The thalamus has ways of filtering the sensory signal affecting perception and attention to the stimuli. Information about odors, however, do not pass through the thalamus first (or at all) and can affect areas of the limbic system directly, producing powerful influ-ences on emotions and memories
48
Odorants
Chemical signals found in the air that affect olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) in the nose.
49
Olfactory receptor neurons (ORN)
Bipolar neurons that have their cell bodies within the olfactory epithelium and signal up into the olfactory bulb through the olfactory nerve. ORNs are affected by odorants in the environment.
50
olfactory bulb
There are two olfactory bulbs on the bottom side of the brain, one above each nasal cavity.
Image result for olfactory bulb
The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell
51
Working dogs and HeroRATs
Because of their keen sense of smell, dogs and rats often serve many vital functions in law enforce-ment, military, search and rescue, and medicine. Scent-detecting dogs are deployed throughout the world in multiple settings and play a particularly prominent role in locating explosives, guns, cash, human decomposition, and illegal drugs, and they are often used in agricultural inspections and ports of entry. These dogs are highly trained and efficient at showing specific responses to target odors
HeroRATsThe name given to African pouch rats that are trained by the organization APOPO to detect mines, explosives, and tuberculosis.
52
Taste sensation and perception
Taste perception or gustation is the sensory detection of food on the tongue. Taste is the sensation that occurs in the mouth when a substance reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds or papillae. Taste determines flavors of foods
53
Tastants
Chemical molecules found in food that dissolve in saliva and affect
chemoreceptors on the tongue initiating the perception of flavors
54
Taste papillae
Bumps on the surface of the tongue, esophagus, and palate. Around the taste papillae are tiny trenches that contain taste bud
55
Taste receptor cells
Clusters of cells on the tastebuds that detect tastants in the saliva. There are likely different taste receptor cells for each of the five flavors.
56
Taste buds
Taste buds are tiny sensory organs on your tongue that send taste messages to your brain. These organs have nerve endings that have chemical reactions to the food you eat. With how many taste buds humans have, you're able to sense a range of flavors across five categories: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory.
57
Gustatory cortex
The gustatory cortex, or primary gustatory cortex, is a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for the perception of taste and flavor. It is comprised of the anterior insula on the insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the frontal lobe.
The function of the gustatory system is to detect, identify, and establish the palatability of specific chemicals present in foods and beverages, herein termed “tastants”.
58
Cochlear implants
Devices that are surgically implanted into the cochlear that transduce sound into stimulation at specific areas on the basilar membrane.
59
Sound
Sound is produced through the compression and rarefaction of a substance like air, but sound can also travel through other substances such as metal and water, though it cannot travel through the vacuum of space despite the suggestion in many science fiction movies. Sound, like light, travels in waves, but the wavelengths are considerably longer. The amplitude of the sound wave is related to loudness and measured as decibels (dB), with a human conversation being around sixty-five dB and a jet taking off around one hundred fifty dB.
60
Soundwaves
A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the movement of energy traveling through a medium (such as air, water or any other liquid or solid matter) as it propagates away from the source of the sound. Sound waves are created by object vibrations and produce pressure waves
61
Frequency
the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time;
62
Pitch
determined by the frequency of vibration of the sound waves that produce them. A high frequency (e.g., 880 Hz) is seen as a high pitch, while a low frequency (e.g., 55 Hz) is regarded as a low pitch. Low-frequency sounds include a bass drum, thunder, and a man's deep voice.
63
HZ
Hertz; The units of frequency are called hertz (Hz)
formula f= 1/t
f=frequency and t= period
64
Amplitude
the maximum amount of displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. In a sense, the amplitude is the distance from rest to crest. Similarly, the amplitude can be measured from the rest position to the trough position
65
Loudness
determined by its association with the amplitude, all types of waves have a certain amplitude
66
Decibels
What Is a Decibel? A decibel (dB) is a unit of measurement for sound. A-weighted decibels, abbreviated dBA, are an expression of the relative loudness of sounds in air as perceived by our ears.
67
Outer and middle ear anatomy
pg 252
68
Tympanic membrane
The eardrum, which converts sound waves into the action of the auditory ossicles.
69
Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)
The three bones in the
middle ear that relay vibration from the
tympanic membrane to the oval window of the cochlea. The three bones are the malleus, incus, and stapes).
The middle ear is filled with air, and the pressure within this chamber is regulated by the eustachian tube that connects back to the nasal cavity. Catching a cold can cause the eustachian tube to get blocked, and this will create pressure in the middle ear, impeding the tympanic membrane from moving and reducing hearing. When the tympanic membrane vibrates, it pushes the malleus, which drives the incus into the stapes. The stapes is connected to another membrane called the oval window, which is smaller in diameter than the tympanic membrane
70
Oval window
The membrane between the middle ear and the choclea. The auditory ossicles called the stapes push on the oval window causing a wave of fluid to travel through the cochlea.
71
Cochlear
Bony fluid-filled
snail-shaped structure containing three chambers. It is where wave action affects neuron firing on the organ of Corti.
72
Vestibule
The vestibule sits between and connects the cochlea and semicircular canals and helps to maintain equilibrium. Within the vestibule are two regions lined by the membranous labyrinth; the utricle, which is closer to the semicircular canals, and the saccule, which is closer to the cochlea.
73
Semicircular canals
The semicircular canals are three tiny, fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that help you keep your balance. When your head moves around, the liquid inside the semicircular canals sloshes around and moves the tiny hairs that line each canal.
74
Cochlear nerve
The cochlear nerve, also known as the acoustic nerve, is the sensory nerve that transfers auditory information from the cochlea (auditory area of the inner ear) to the brain. It is one of the many pieces that make up the auditory system, which enables effective hearing.
75
Vestibular nerve
the vestibular nerve relays information related to motion and position. The vestibular system involves coordinated communication between the vestibular apparatus (semicircular canals, saccule, utricle), ocular muscles, postural muscles, brainstem, and cerebral cortex
76
Auditory nerve
Your auditory nerve runs from your cochlea to a station in your brain stem (known as the nucleus). From that station, neural impulses travel to your temporal lobe — where your brain attaches sound to meaning.
77
Basilar membrane
The flexible membrane that makes up the base of the organ of Corti. It is
tonotopic and is thinner near the base and thicker near the apex.
78
Organ of Corti
The structure where auditory transduction takes place. It is made of the basilar membrane, hair cells, and the tectorial membrane
79
Hair cells
Neurons between the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane. They affect the
vestibulocochlear nerve.
80
tectorial membrane
The thicker membrane at the top of the organ of Corti is where the stereocilia of the hair cells attach.
81
Stereocilia
The fine filaments connect the hair cells with the tectorial membrane. They are responsible for affecting mechanoreceptor ion channels
82
Mechanoreceptors
Receptors on hair cells that open ion channels through the physical movement of stereocilia.
83
K+ and Ca++
. When they bend in one direction, the stereocilia pull open K+ channels (not Na+ channels) on the hair cells. K+ enters the hair cell causing depolarization that affects Ca++ channels, which increase the release of neurotransmitters. When they bend in the other direction, they hyperpolarize, stopping the release ofneurotransmitters. The hair cells are mechanoreceptors in that mechanical action of stereocilia open and close channels; these are mechanically gated K+ channels
84
Tonotopic
The fact that structures like the basilar membrane and auditory cortex are maps of tone frequencies. In the basilar membrane, high frequencies are decoded near the base, and lower frequencies are decoded near the apex.
85
Auditory nerve/vestibulocochlear nerve
The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain.
86
Medial geniculate nucleus
Gets information from the auditory system and sends it to the auditory cortex. It also gets information from the frontal lobe to affect attention
87
McGurk effect
An auditory illusion where one perceives different sounds depending on whether the sound is played alone or when watching a person speak the sounds. It demonstrates the
importance of perception based on visual and auditory information.
88
Synesthesia
A condition where some people have perceptions that cross sensory modalities. People might talk about hearing words or sounds and seeing colors that represent those words or sounds.
89
Language Acquisition Device
A theoretical brain structure unique to humans enabling language acquistion.
90
Broca’s area
An area responsible in part for language production. It is typically found on the left posterior part of the inferior frontal lobe.
91
Broca’s aphasia
The inability or impairment of speaking caused by damage to Broca’s area.
92
Wernicke’s aphasia
Difficulty with language comprehension caused by damage in and around Wernicke’s area.
93
Werenickes area
A part of the superior and posterior temporal lobe that plays a large role in language comprehension.
94
Word salad
Words spoken with the right intonation and rhythm but do not make sense. A condition found in people with forms of psychosis or damage to Wernicke’s area
95
Classical model
Also known as the Wernicke-Geschwind model. It is the
long-standing model of the neurobiology of language emphasizing the connections between Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.
96
The trouble with the classical model and neurobiology and language
The idea that you could put a pin in the brain and localize language was in contrast to the devel-oping ideas of equipotentiality, or that complex mental processes are the responsibility of many areas of the brain working together, thereby playing an “equal” role. The ideas that Broca’s area was for speech and Wernicke’s area was for comprehension, and that they are connected by the sin-gle pathway (the arcuate fasciculus) has been the cornerstone in the theories of the neurobiology of language. However, in modern times, the accuracy of neuroimaging has begun to question this dogma.
97
Hemispheric lateralization
The left and right sides of the brain are specialised to attend to different information, to process sensory inputs in different ways and to control different types of motor behaviour. This is referred to as hemispheric specialization or simply as brain lateralization.
98
Visuospatial ability
Visuospatial ability refers to a person’s capacity to identify visual and spatial relationships among objects. Visuospatial ability is measured in terms of the ability to imagine objects, to make global shapes by locating small components, or to understand the differences and similarities between objects.
99
The right hemisphere
visual and auditory stimuli
100
Hemispatial neglect
The syndrome of hemispatial neglect is characterised by reduced awareness of stimuli on one side of space, even though there may be no sensory loss. Although it is extremely common, it has proven to be a challenging condition to understand, and to treat.
101
Split-brain surgery
The procedure involves cutting a band of fibers (the corpus callosum) in the brain. Afterward, the nerves can't send seizure signals between the brain's two halves. It makes seizures less severe and frequent and may stop them completely.
102
Multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA)
MVPA refers to a set of methods that analyze neural responses as patterns of activity, thus affording investigation of the varying brain states that a cortical field or system can produce
103
Neural decoding
Neural decoding is the study of what information is available in the electrical activity (action potentials) of individual cells or networks of neurons. Studies of neural decoding aim to identify what stimulus, event, or desired output elicits a particular pattern of neural activity.
