Quiz 3 Ch 6 and 7

Question 1

transduction

Answer 1

the process of converting the physical properties of external stimuli like light and sound to changes in the nervous system like the rate of action potentials

Question 2

electromagnetic spectrum

Answer 2

The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation is often denoted as different wavelengths. Visible light has a range of about four hundred nm to seven hundred nm wavelengths.

Question 3

Cornea

Answer 3

clear outer space of the eye that bends light and is responsible for 80 percent of focus images. It protects the eye

Question 4

lens

Answer 4

responsible for controlling the remaining 20- 30 percent of the eyes focusing power. Clear structure in the middle of the eye that can be bent with ciliary muscles to change how light is focused on the retina.

Question 5

accommodation

Answer 5

the act of focusing on the image (light) on the retina.

Question 6

retina

Answer 6

Layers of cells at the back of the eye include photoreceptor cells, intermediate cells, and ganglion cells. It is where transduction takes place.
( back of the eye)

Question 7

ganglion cells

Answer 7

Cells in the retina get information from intermediate cells and photoreceptor cells. The axons of the ganglion cells make up the optic nerve

Question 8

rods

Answer 8

Photoreceptor cells that are found primarily in the periphery of the retina. They are responsible for scotopic vision.

Question 9

cones

Answer 9

Photoreceptor cells are found with the greatest density in the fovea of the retina. They are
responsible for photopic vision.

Question 10

Amacrine cells

Answer 10

trinsic interneurons of the inner retina representing the most diverse class of neurons in the retina. Generally they receive synaptic input from bipolar cells and other amacrines, and in turn provide input to amacrine and ganglion cells as well as feedback to bipolar cells.

Question 11

Horizontal cells

Answer 11

Horizontal cells modulate the output of photoreceptors and play many roles in early visual processing contributing to contrast enhancement, colour opponency, and the generation of centre–surround receptive fields in cone photoreceptors (cones) and BCs.

Question 12

Photopic vision

Answer 12

part of the visual system responsible for processing detail and color. Works best in high-intensity light. The cones are responsible for beginning photopic vision, but areas of the thalamus and visual cortex are involved as well.

Question 13

fovea

Answer 13

Small portion of the center of the retina. It is highly populated with cones and is where we focus on an image.

Question 14

scotopic vision

Answer 14

Part of the visual system is responsible for movement and seeing in low light. The rods are primarily responsible for scotopic vision, but areas of the thalamus and visual cortex are also involved

Question 15

Myopia

Answer 15

Also known as
nearsightedness, it is caused by an image that is focused at a point before the retina

Question 16

Hyperopia

Answer 16

Also known as farsightedness, it is caused by an image being focused past the retina.

Question 17

Trichromatic theory

Answer 17

A theory of color vision that assumes there are three types of cones, which are sensitive to different wavelengths of light. There are blue, green, and red cones

Question 18

Opponent process theory

Answer 18

A second theory of color vision that assumes cells in the retina and thalamus send two different signals if they are excited or inhibited. For example, there are blue/yellow ganglion cells that send a signal for blue when excited but yellow when inhibited.

Question 19

Lateral inhibition

Answer 19

A process in the retina where intermediate cells accentuate transitions between light and dark by inhibiting neurons next to them. Highlighting edges in this way is the first stage in visual processing.

Question 20

Receptive field

Answer 20

This is a broad term referring to all cells in the visual system that
influence another cell. For example, a ganglion cell is influenced by many photoreceptor cells in its round receptive field.

Question 21

Center-surround

Answer 21

The type of receptive field that looks like a circle within a circle, or a donut. The inner circle responds differently to light than the outer circle.

Question 22

On-center ganglion cell

Answer 22

This ganglion cell
responds most when light strikes the center of its receptive field and is inhibited when light strikes the periphery.

Question 23

Off-center ganglion cells

Answer 23

These ganglion cells respond the most when light strikes the periphery and are inhibited when light strikes the center.

Question 24

Visual pathway

Answer 24

consists of the retina, optic nerves, optic chiasm, optic tracts, lateral geniculate bodies, optic radiations, and visual cortex. The pathway is, effectively, part of the central nervous system

Question 25

Lateral geniculate nucleus

Answer 25

A nucleus on either side of the thalamus that gets information from ganglion cells of the retina, and sends information to the primary visual cortex.

Question 26

Retinotopic map

Answer 26

The fact that the location of cells in the LGN and primary visual cortex correspond to a map of the retina.

Question 27

P-cells

Answer 27

A type of ganglion cell that gets information from the fovea and sends information to the parvocellular layer in the LGN.

Question 28

Parvocellular layers

Answer 28

Layers 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the LGN, which get information from P-ganglion cells and process color, shapes, and details.

Question 29

M-cells

Answer 29

A type of ganglion cell that primarily gets information from rods in the periphery of the retina and sends signals to the
magnocellular layer of the LGN

Question 30

Magnocellular layer

Answer 30

Layers 1 and 2 of the LGN, which get information from M-ganglion cells and processes information about movement and low-intensity ligh

Question 31

Simple cells

Answer 31

Cells of the primary visual cortex that have
rectangular receptive fields and are sensitive to lines of specific orientations.

Question 32

Neuronal tuning

Answer 32

The hypothesis that individual brain cells are tuned to specific stimuli. In the visual system, a cell might be tuned to a line of a specific orientation presented on its receptive field

Question 33

Primary visual cortex/Striate cortex/V1

Answer 33

This is the area of the
occipital lobe that gets the first information from the LGN. It is also called V1 or the striate cortex.

Question 34

Complex cells

Answer 34

Cells of the primary visual cortex that get information from simple cells. Complex cells respond selectively to lines of specific orientation that move in specific direction

Question 35

Hypercomplex cells

Answer 35

Cells in the primary visual cortex that receive information from simple cells and complex cells. Hypercomplex cells respond to lines with specific orientations, angles, and lengths.

Question 36

Dorsal stream

Answer 36

A visual pathway that starts in the magnocellular layer of the LGN and then travels through V1, V2, V3, V5, and then to the parietal lobe. It is thought to be responsible for the perception of movement.

Question 37

Ventral stream

Answer 37

A visual pathway that starts in the parvocellular layer of the LGN and then travels to V1, V2, V4, and finally to the inferior temporal lobe. It is
important in the perception of color and object recognition.

Question 38

Inferior temporal lobe

Answer 38

Area of the temporal lobe with cells that are “tuned” to responding to complex shapes and faces.

Question 39

Medial temporal lobe

Answer 39

Area of the temporal lobe that is V5 in the dorsal stream visual pathway. The MT serves many functions in perception and memory but also plays a role in motion perception.

Question 40

Primary cells

Answer 40

Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond to simple shapes like squares, spots, and ellipses.

Question 41

Elaborate cells

Answer 41

Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond selectively to complex shapes, colors, and textures.

Question 42

Fusiform gyrus

Answer 42

area of the inferior temporal lobe that contains cells that selectively respond to shapes, textures, and faces.

Question 43

Face-selective cells

Answer 43

Cells in the fusiform gyrus that respond to faces of a specific orientation. There may also be face-selective cells that respond to important people to you like “grandmother cells” or famous people like a “Jennifer Aniston” ce

Question 44

Prosopagnosia

Answer 44

A visual perception difficulty in which people have trouble recognizing faces. This can be caused by damage to specific areas of the fusiform gyrus.

Question 45

Linear process

Answer 45

The theory that visual perception goes from simple (line) to complex (shape) in one direction, with each stage building on the previous.

Question 46

Parallel processing

Answer 46

The theory that visual perception is the product of many areas of the visual system working and affecting each other. For example, cells of the V1 affect and are affected by V2, V3, V4, etc.

Question 47

Olfactory system

Answer 47

The sense of touch, sight, and hearing all must send signals through the thalamus before the infor-mation is processed by the cortex. The thalamus has ways of filtering the sensory signal affecting perception and attention to the stimuli. Information about odors, however, do not pass through the thalamus first (or at all) and can affect areas of the limbic system directly, producing powerful influ-ences on emotions and memories

Question 48

Odorants

Answer 48

Chemical signals found in the air that affect olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) in the nose.

Question 49

Olfactory receptor neurons (ORN)

Answer 49

Bipolar neurons that have their cell bodies within the olfactory epithelium and signal up into the olfactory bulb through the olfactory nerve. ORNs are affected by odorants in the environment.

Question 50

olfactory bulb

Answer 50

There are two olfactory bulbs on the bottom side of the brain, one above each nasal cavity.
Image result for olfactory bulb
The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell

Question 51

Working dogs and HeroRATs

Answer 51

Because of their keen sense of smell, dogs and rats often serve many vital functions in law enforce-ment, military, search and rescue, and medicine. Scent-detecting dogs are deployed throughout the world in multiple settings and play a particularly prominent role in locating explosives, guns, cash, human decomposition, and illegal drugs, and they are often used in agricultural inspections and ports of entry. These dogs are highly trained and efficient at showing specific responses to target odors

HeroRATsThe name given to African pouch rats that are trained by the organization APOPO to detect mines, explosives, and tuberculosis.

Question 52

Taste sensation and perception

Answer 52

Taste perception or gustation is the sensory detection of food on the tongue. Taste is the sensation that occurs in the mouth when a substance reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds or papillae. Taste determines flavors of foods

Question 53

Tastants

Answer 53

Chemical molecules found in food that dissolve in saliva and affect
chemoreceptors on the tongue initiating the perception of flavors

Question 54

Taste papillae

Answer 54

Bumps on the surface of the tongue, esophagus, and palate. Around the taste papillae are tiny trenches that contain taste bud

Question 55

Taste receptor cells

Answer 55

Clusters of cells on the tastebuds that detect tastants in the saliva. There are likely different taste receptor cells for each of the five flavors.

Question 56

Taste buds

Answer 56

Taste buds are tiny sensory organs on your tongue that send taste messages to your brain. These organs have nerve endings that have chemical reactions to the food you eat. With how many taste buds humans have, you’re able to sense a range of flavors across five categories: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory.

Question 57

Gustatory cortex

Answer 57

The gustatory cortex, or primary gustatory cortex, is a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for the perception of taste and flavor. It is comprised of the anterior insula on the insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the frontal lobe.
The function of the gustatory system is to detect, identify, and establish the palatability of specific chemicals present in foods and beverages, herein termed “tastants”.

Question 58

Cochlear implants

Answer 58

Devices that are surgically implanted into the cochlear that transduce sound into stimulation at specific areas on the basilar membrane.

Question 59

Sound

Answer 59

Sound is produced through the compression and rarefaction of a substance like air, but sound can also travel through other substances such as metal and water, though it cannot travel through the vacuum of space despite the suggestion in many science fiction movies. Sound, like light, travels in waves, but the wavelengths are considerably longer. The amplitude of the sound wave is related to loudness and measured as decibels (dB), with a human conversation being around sixty-five dB and a jet taking off around one hundred fifty dB.

Question 60

Soundwaves

Answer 60

A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the movement of energy traveling through a medium (such as air, water or any other liquid or solid matter) as it propagates away from the source of the sound. Sound waves are created by object vibrations and produce pressure waves

Question 61

Frequency

Answer 61

the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time;

Question 62

Pitch

Answer 62

determined by the frequency of vibration of the sound waves that produce them. A high frequency (e.g., 880 Hz) is seen as a high pitch, while a low frequency (e.g., 55 Hz) is regarded as a low pitch. Low-frequency sounds include a bass drum, thunder, and a man’s deep voice.

Question 63

HZ

Answer 63

Hertz; The units of frequency are called hertz (Hz)
formula f= 1/t
f=frequency and t= period

Question 64

Amplitude

Answer 64

the maximum amount of displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. In a sense, the amplitude is the distance from rest to crest. Similarly, the amplitude can be measured from the rest position to the trough position

Question 65

Loudness

Answer 65

determined by its association with the amplitude, all types of waves have a certain amplitude

Question 66

Decibels

Answer 66

What Is a Decibel? A decibel (dB) is a unit of measurement for sound. A-weighted decibels, abbreviated dBA, are an expression of the relative loudness of sounds in air as perceived by our ears.

Question 67

Outer and middle ear anatomy

Answer 67

pg 252

Question 68

Tympanic membrane

Answer 68

The eardrum, which converts sound waves into the action of the auditory ossicles.

Question 69

Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)

Answer 69

The three bones in the
middle ear that relay vibration from the
tympanic membrane to the oval window of the cochlea. The three bones are the malleus, incus, and stapes).
The middle ear is filled with air, and the pressure within this chamber is regulated by the eustachian tube that connects back to the nasal cavity. Catching a cold can cause the eustachian tube to get blocked, and this will create pressure in the middle ear, impeding the tympanic membrane from moving and reducing hearing. When the tympanic membrane vibrates, it pushes the malleus, which drives the incus into the stapes. The stapes is connected to another membrane called the oval window, which is smaller in diameter than the tympanic membrane

Question 70

Oval window

Answer 70

The membrane between the middle ear and the choclea. The auditory ossicles called the stapes push on the oval window causing a wave of fluid to travel through the cochlea.

Question 71

Cochlear

Answer 71

Bony fluid-filled
snail-shaped structure containing three chambers. It is where wave action affects neuron firing on the organ of Corti.

Question 72

Vestibule

Answer 72

The vestibule sits between and connects the cochlea and semicircular canals and helps to maintain equilibrium. Within the vestibule are two regions lined by the membranous labyrinth; the utricle, which is closer to the semicircular canals, and the saccule, which is closer to the cochlea.

Question 73

Semicircular canals

Answer 73

The semicircular canals are three tiny, fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that help you keep your balance. When your head moves around, the liquid inside the semicircular canals sloshes around and moves the tiny hairs that line each canal.

Question 74

Cochlear nerve

Answer 74

The cochlear nerve, also known as the acoustic nerve, is the sensory nerve that transfers auditory information from the cochlea (auditory area of the inner ear) to the brain. It is one of the many pieces that make up the auditory system, which enables effective hearing.

Question 75

Vestibular nerve

Answer 75

the vestibular nerve relays information related to motion and position. The vestibular system involves coordinated communication between the vestibular apparatus (semicircular canals, saccule, utricle), ocular muscles, postural muscles, brainstem, and cerebral cortex

Question 76

Auditory nerve

Answer 76

Your auditory nerve runs from your cochlea to a station in your brain stem (known as the nucleus). From that station, neural impulses travel to your temporal lobe — where your brain attaches sound to meaning.

Question 77

Basilar membrane

Answer 77

The flexible membrane that makes up the base of the organ of Corti. It is
tonotopic and is thinner near the base and thicker near the apex.

Question 78

Organ of Corti

Answer 78

The structure where auditory transduction takes place. It is made of the basilar membrane, hair cells, and the tectorial membrane

Question 79

Hair cells

Answer 79

Neurons between the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane. They affect the
vestibulocochlear nerve.

Question 80

tectorial membrane

Answer 80

The thicker membrane at the top of the organ of Corti is where the stereocilia of the hair cells attach.

Question 81

Stereocilia

Answer 81

The fine filaments connect the hair cells with the tectorial membrane. They are responsible for affecting mechanoreceptor ion channels

Question 82

Mechanoreceptors

Answer 82

Receptors on hair cells that open ion channels through the physical movement of stereocilia.

Question 83

K+ and Ca++

Answer 83

. When they bend in one direction, the stereocilia pull open K+ channels (not Na+ channels) on the hair cells. K+ enters the hair cell causing depolarization that affects Ca++ channels, which increase the release of neurotransmitters. When they bend in the other direction, they hyperpolarize, stopping the release ofneurotransmitters. The hair cells are mechanoreceptors in that mechanical action of stereocilia open and close channels; these are mechanically gated K+ channels

Question 84

Tonotopic

Answer 84

The fact that structures like the basilar membrane and auditory cortex are maps of tone frequencies. In the basilar membrane, high frequencies are decoded near the base, and lower frequencies are decoded near the apex.

Question 85

Auditory nerve/vestibulocochlear nerve

Answer 85

The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain.

Question 86

Medial geniculate nucleus

Answer 86

Gets information from the auditory system and sends it to the auditory cortex. It also gets information from the frontal lobe to affect attention

Question 87

McGurk effect

Answer 87

An auditory illusion where one perceives different sounds depending on whether the sound is played alone or when watching a person speak the sounds. It demonstrates the
importance of perception based on visual and auditory information.

Question 88

Synesthesia

Answer 88

A condition where some people have perceptions that cross sensory modalities. People might talk about hearing words or sounds and seeing colors that represent those words or sounds.

Question 89

Language Acquisition Device

Answer 89

A theoretical brain structure unique to humans enabling language acquistion.

Question 90

Broca’s area

Answer 90

An area responsible in part for language production. It is typically found on the left posterior part of the inferior frontal lobe.

Question 91

Broca’s aphasia

Answer 91

The inability or impairment of speaking caused by damage to Broca’s area.

Question 92

Wernicke’s aphasia

Answer 92

Difficulty with language comprehension caused by damage in and around Wernicke’s area.

Question 93

Werenickes area

Answer 93

A part of the superior and posterior temporal lobe that plays a large role in language comprehension.

Question 94

Word salad

Answer 94

Words spoken with the right intonation and rhythm but do not make sense. A condition found in people with forms of psychosis or damage to Wernicke’s area

Question 95

Classical model

Answer 95

Also known as the Wernicke-Geschwind model. It is the
long-standing model of the neurobiology of language emphasizing the connections between Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.

Question 96

The trouble with the classical model and neurobiology and language

Answer 96

The idea that you could put a pin in the brain and localize language was in contrast to the devel-oping ideas of equipotentiality, or that complex mental processes are the responsibility of many areas of the brain working together, thereby playing an “equal” role. The ideas that Broca’s area was for speech and Wernicke’s area was for comprehension, and that they are connected by the sin-gle pathway (the arcuate fasciculus) has been the cornerstone in the theories of the neurobiology of language. However, in modern times, the accuracy of neuroimaging has begun to question this dogma.

Question 97

Hemispheric lateralization

Answer 97

The left and right sides of the brain are specialised to attend to different information, to process sensory inputs in different ways and to control different types of motor behaviour. This is referred to as hemispheric specialization or simply as brain lateralization.

Question 98

Visuospatial ability

Answer 98

Visuospatial ability refers to a person’s capacity to identify visual and spatial relationships among objects. Visuospatial ability is measured in terms of the ability to imagine objects, to make global shapes by locating small components, or to understand the differences and similarities between objects.

Question 99

The right hemisphere

Answer 99

visual and auditory stimuli

Question 100

Hemispatial neglect

Answer 100

The syndrome of hemispatial neglect is characterised by reduced awareness of stimuli on one side of space, even though there may be no sensory loss. Although it is extremely common, it has proven to be a challenging condition to understand, and to treat.

Question 101

Split-brain surgery

Answer 101

The procedure involves cutting a band of fibers (the corpus callosum) in the brain. Afterward, the nerves can’t send seizure signals between the brain’s two halves. It makes seizures less severe and frequent and may stop them completely.

Question 102

Multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA)

Answer 102

MVPA refers to a set of methods that analyze neural responses as patterns of activity, thus affording investigation of the varying brain states that a cortical field or system can produce

Question 103

Neural decoding

Answer 103

Neural decoding is the study of what information is available in the electrical activity (action potentials) of individual cells or networks of neurons. Studies of neural decoding aim to identify what stimulus, event, or desired output elicits a particular pattern of neural activity.