QUIZ 3 Flashcards
Interocular Suppression
an image presented to one eye suppresses another image presented to the other eye
Mind Wandering
state of consciousness in which random (purposeless) flow of thoughts comes to mind
Default Mode Network (DMN)
activations of brain areas when people daydream
Freudian Slip
when an unconscious (typically suppressed, according to Freud) though is suddenly expressed at an inappropriate time or in an inappropriate social context
Modern Take on Freudian Slip
some reveal unconscious thoughts & desires but many cases are simply cases of misremembering, mis-retrieval, lapses, language mistakes
Priming
when the response to a stimulus is influence/facilitated by recent experience with that stimulus or related stimulus
Subliminal Perception
when stimuli are processed by sensory systems but do not reach consciousness, because of their short durations or subtlety
Stages of Sleep (5)
- dozing off
- light sleep
- deep sleep
- deeper sleep
- REM sleep
Freud’s View of Why We Dream
dream hold meaning (represent hidden wishes/anxiety), represent inappropriate thoughts
Activation Synthesis Model
brain imposes meaning on random neural activity, dreams produced when brain attempts to make sense of activation that occur randomly during sleep
What is the difference between the Freud’s theory and the Activation Synthesis Model?
In Freud’s theory, dreams begin with meaning, whereas in the activation-synthesis theory, dreams begin randomly, then meaning can be added
Types of Psychoactive Drugs (4)
Depressants, Stimulants, Narcotics, Hallucinogens
Expectancy Theory
alcohol effect can be produced by people’s expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations
Alcohol Myopia Theory
alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situation
Depressants
reduce CNS activity, increase activity of neurotransmitter GABA (alcohol, king of depressants)
Stimulants
substances that excite the CNS, heightening arousal & activity levels, increase levels of dopamine & norepinephrine in brain (caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine)
Narcotics
highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain (heroin, morphine, codeine)
Hallucinogens
drugs that alter sensation & perception; often cause visual & auditory hallucinations (LSD, Ketamine)
Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome
when people emerge from a coma; their eyes open; have sleep/wake cycles; do not respond to external stimuli for more than a month; still activity in regions of brain stem; vegetative state
Minimally Conscious State
when people emerge from a coma; make deliberate movements (following object with eyes
Brain Death
irreversible loss of brain function; no brain activity
Locked-in Syndrome
full awareness but cannot demonstrate it (no voluntary muscles), not consciousness problem, problem with muscles
Encoding
transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
Storage
maintaining information in memory over time
Retrieval
bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
3 Ways of Encoding
- Visual Imagery Encoding
- Semantic Encoding
- Organizational Encoding
Visual Imagery Encoding
process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
Semantic Encoding
process of actively relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already in memory
Organizational Encoding
process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
3 major stages of memory
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
Sensory Memory
brief storage of sensory information, no capacity limit
Short-term Memory
storage that holds information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute, ~7 items (w/ rehearsal), ~4 items (visual), ~2 items (complex visual)
Long-term Memory
holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years, no capacity limit
Iconic Memory
sensory memory of visual information
Echoic Memory
sensory memory of auditory information
What is the purpose of Sensory Memory?
wide understanding in short period of time, process just enough to make sense of it then move on
Serial Position Effect
the first and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle
Primacy Effect
Remember beginning of list better than middle
Recency Effect
Remember end of list better than middle
Rehearsal
process of keeping information in STM by mentally repeating it
Chunking
combining small piece of information into larger clusters/chunks that are more easily held in STM
Working Memory
short term memory storage that actively maintains and manipulates information
What did Patient HM teach us?
patient HM (hippocampus removed) was unable to store long-term memories (working memory fine)
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to encode new information from the short-term storage into the long-term storage
Retrograde Amnesia
inability to retrieve information acquired before a particular date (usually date of injury or surgery)
Long-term Potentiation
communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier
Describe “use it or lose it”
repeated stimulation (studying, practicing, revising, reviewing) strengthen synaptic connections over time
Consolidation
stabilizes newly acquired memories (strengthens a new memory trace after initial acquisition)
Reconsolidation
re-stabilizes re-activated (retrieved, established memories)
Retrieval Cue
information associated with stored information helps bring it to mind
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
matching encoding and retrieval contexts improves recall
Encoding Specificity Principle
matching the encoding contexts of information at recall helps the retrieval of memories (context-dependent memory)
State-dependent Memory
information is better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
3 consequences of retrieval
- Retrieval-induced Forgetting
- Retrieval-induced Enhancement
- Retrieval Interference
Retrieval-induced Forgetting
retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs or interfere with subsequent recall of related items
Explicit Memory
consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences (”when is Christmas Day?”)
Implicit Memory
influence of past experiences on later behaviour even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection
Episodic Memory
explicit memory, past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
Semantic Memory
explicit memory, facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
Procedural Memory
implicit memory, gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things (motor skills)
Priming
implicit, enhanced ability to think of a stimulus as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus
Perceptual Priming
sensory features (goat → boat)
Conceptual Priming
meaning (seat → chair)
7 sins of Memory
- Transience
- Absentmindedness
- Blocking
- Memory Misattribution
- Suggestibility
- Bias
- Persistence
Transience (memory)
forgetting that occurs with the passage of time
Absentmindedness
lapse in attention that results in memory failure (when attention is divided or distracted)
Blocking
failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
Memory Misattribution
assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source (your memory is correct; your source memory is wrong)
Suggestibility
tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections (in response to suggesting)
Bias
present knowledge, beliefs, and feeling distort (or influence) recollection of previous experiences
Persistence
intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
Curve of Forgetting (transience)
Memory fades more quickly at first, then more slowly over time
Retroactive Interference
later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
Proactive Interference
earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
Infantile/Childhood Amnesia
most of us have few or no memories from the first few years of life
Prospective Memory (absentmindedness)
remembering to do things in the future
Source Memory
recall of when, where and how information was acquired
False Recognition (Deja Vu)
feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before
Encoding Stage Factors (4)
Stress, Violence, Emotion, Arousal
Storage Stage Factors
Time
Retrieval Stage Factors
Expectation, Reconsolidation
Consistency Bias
reconstructs the past to fit the present (ie. how good was your relationship with your parents 10 years ago)
Egocentric Bias
tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect
Shallow Processing
encoding information on basic sensory levels (based on sound, structure or appearance of word)
Deep Processing
encoding information semantically or through connection to existing memories and concepts (based on meaning associated with word, relating to personal, emotional experience) better memory storage and recall
Learning
the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience (or practice)
Habituation
general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding
Sensitization
presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
Unconditioned Response
reflexive (automatic) reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
initially neutral; through conditioning, it produces a reliable response
Conditioned Response
resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
Associative Learning
linking certain events, behaviours, or stimuli together in the process of conditioning (bell sound + drooling)
3 Principles for successful classical conditioning
- neutral stimulus should come before unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus come very close together in time
- neutral stimulus must be paired repeatedly with unconditioned before conditioning takes place
Second-order conditioning
conditioned stimulus is not used for another association between a new neutral stimulus and the conditioned response
Acquisition
phase of classical condition when the CS and the US are presented together (learning conditioning, over time stronger association)
Extinction
gradual elimination of a learned response when the US is no longer presented (only conditioned response presented)
Spontaneous Recovery
tendency of learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period (rebuild connection but not as strong)
Generalization
CR is observed even though CS is slightly different from the original one used
Discrimination
capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
Operant Conditioning
the consequences of a behaviour determine whether the behaviour will be repeated in the future
Operant Behaviour
behaviour that has some impact on the environment (skinners box → rat press lever for food)
Reinforcer
any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it
Punisher
any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it
Response
produces a certain consequence
Consequence
serves to either increase (reinforcer) or decrease (punisher) the future probability of that response
Positive Reinforcement
stimulus presented, increases likelihood of behaviour
Positive Punishment
Stimulus presented, decreases likeliness of behaviour
Negative Reinforcement
stimulus removed, increases likelihood of behaviour
Negative Punishment
stimulus removed, decreases likeliness of behaviour
Primary Reinforcers
meet basic biological needs (ie. food, comfort, shelter. warmth)
Secondary Reinforcers
associated with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning (ie. money, tokens, stickers, stamps, verbal appraisal
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforces a behaviour each time it occurs, response rate slow, extinction rate fast
Intermittent Reinforcement
only some of the responses are followed by reinforcement,
Response Rate
the rate at which you show the behaviour (how much you try)
Extinction Rate
rate at which your behaviour dies out (how soon you give up)
Fixed Interval Reinforcement
response rate medium, extinction rate medium
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
Response rate fast, Extinction rate medium
Variable Interval Reinforcement
Response rate fast, extinction rate slow
Variable Ratio Reinforcement
Response rate fast, extinction rate slow (hard to distinguish b/c of unpredictability)
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour
Successive Approximation
a behaviour gets incrementally closer to the overall desired behaviour
Superstitious Behaviour
rare or odd behaviours can be repeated if they are. accidentally reinforced, which may lead to mistaken beliefs regarding causal relationships
Social-cognitive Learning
involves no immediate reward or punishment after you are exposed to new information
Latent Learning
condition in which something is learned but is not shown as a behavioural change until sometime in the future
Observational Learning (Modelling)
takes place by watching the actions of others
Implicit Learning
learning that takes place largely without awareness of the learning process
4 Basic Properties of Consciousness
intentionality, unity, selectivity, transience
Intentionality
quality of being directed towards an object (although see a lot, only focus on small part of vision)
Unity
resistance to division or the ability to integrate information from all the body’s senses into one coherent whole (reading book see words, feel gravity, but brain combines everything to give unified experience)
Selectivity
capacity to include some objects but not others (dichotic listening, choose what you hear or cocktail party phenomenon)
Transience
tendency to change (stream of consciousness, mind wander from right now to the next right now)
3 Levels of Consciousness
minimal consciousness, full consciousness, self-consciousness
Minimal Consciousness
low level kind of sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behaviour
Full Consciousness
you know and are able to report your mental state
Self-consciousness
distinct level of consciousness in which the person’s attention is drawn to the self as an object
Insomnia
difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep
Sleep Apnea
disorder which person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep
Somnambulism/sleepwalking:
occurs when a person arises and walks around while asleep
Narcolepsy
disorder which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of walking activities
Sleep Paralysis
experience of waking up unable to move and is sometimes associated with narcolepsy
Night Terrors
abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal
