Quiz 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Dopamine neurons location
A
Midbrain - Substantia nigra and VTA
2
Q
Norepinephrine neuron location
A
Locus ceruleus and medullary reticular formation
3
Q
Serotonin neuron location
A
Raphe nuclei in midline of brainstem RF
4
Q
Acetylcholine neuron location
A
Basal nucleus
5
Q
3 divisions of thalamus
A
Anterior
Medial
Lateral
6
Q
Anterior nucleus: input and output
A
Input - Hippocampus –> mammillary body –> AN Output - to Cingulate gyrus (limbic system)
7
Q
Dorsal medial nucleus
A
Association nucleus for prefrontal cortex PF–>DMN–>PF
8
Q
Lateral nucleus divisions
A
VA
VL
VPL
VPM
Pulvinar
9
Q
VA/VL nuclei input and output
A
Input - Motor from cerebellum and basal ganglia
Output - Primary motor, pre motor, supplementary motor
10
Q
VPL/VPM input and output
A
Input - STT, Medial lemniscus
Output - To somatosensory cortex
11
Q
Difference between VPL and VPM
A
VPM = Smaller, sensory from Trigeminal
VPL = Sensory from rest of body
12
Q
Auditory thalamus pathway
A
Auditory nucleus –> Inferior colliculus –> Medial geniculate nucleus –> auditory cortex
13
Q
Visual thalamus pathway
A
Optic tract –> Lateral geniculate nucleus –> radiations –> occipital lobe (sup/inf calcarine sulcus)
14
Q
Pulvinar nucleus pathway
A
P.O.T –> pulvinar –> P.O.T
15
Q
Reticular nucleus
A
Surrounds thalamus
Provides GABAergic inhibitory signals
Provide focus and involved in sleep
16
Q
Physiological states of thalamocortical neurons
A
- Tonic mode
- Burst mode
17
Q
Tonic mode neurons
A
Regular function, pass along information
18
Q
Burst mode neurons
A
Slightly hyperpolarized via RN –> small, slow Ca spike and less iformation transfer
19
Q
Internal capsule parts
A
- Anterior limb 2. Genu 3. Posterior limb 4. Sublenticular limb 5. Retrolenticular limb
20
Q
Anterior limb location
A
Between caudate lobe and lenticular nucleus
21
Q
Posterior limb location
A
Between lenticular nucleus and thalamus
22
Q
Sublenticular limb location
A
Below lenticular nucleus
23
Q
Retrolenticular limb location
A
Behind lenticular basal ganglia
24
Q
Contents of anterior limb of internal capsule
A
Anterior thalamic nuclei fibers Dorsomedial nucleus fibers (PF association)
25
Posterior limb of IC contents
Motor and somatosensory fibers
VA, VL (Motor)
VPM, VPL (Sensory)
26
Sublenticular limb of IC contents
Auditory fibers
Medial geniculate nucleus
27
Retrolenticular limb of IC contents
Vision fibers
Lateral geniculate nucleus
Pulvinar association nucleus fibers - P.O.T
28
Full pathway from hippocampus
Hippocampus --\> Mammillary body --\> Anterior nucleus of thalamus --\> Anterior limb of internal capsule --\> Cingulate gyrus
29
Full pathway from Auditory
Auditory nucleus --\> inferior colliculus --\> Medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus --\> Sublenticular limb of internal capsule --\> auditory cortex (superior temporal gyrus)
30
Full pathway of cerebellar/basal ganglia motor
Cerebellum/basal ganglia --\> VA/VL nuclei of thalamus --\> Posterior limb of internal capsule --\> primary/pre/supplementary motor nucleus
31
Full pathway of Sensory fibers
ML/STT --\> VPL/VPM nuclei of thalamus --\> posterior limb of internal capsule --\> somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)
32
Full pathway of PF association
PF cortex --\> DM nucleus of thalamus --\> anterior limb of internal capsule --\> PF cortex
33
Full pathway of P.O.T association
P.O.T --\> Pulvinar nucleus of thalamus --\> Retrolenticular limb of internal capsule --\> P.O.T
34
Full pathway of Vision fibers
Optic nerve --\> Optic tract --\> Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus --\> retrolenticular limb of internal capsule --\> radiations --\> occipital lobe (Superior and inferior to calcarine sulcus)
35
Thalamus blood supply
Posterior cerebral artery
36
Bony labyrinth fluid
Perilymph
37
Membranous labyrinth fluid
Endolymph
38
Hearing pathway
Air waves travel into ear --\> vibrate tympanic membrane --\> ossicles move, stapes taps on oval window, causes fluid vibration in cochlea --\> perilymph vibrates all the way through cochlea --\> vibrates Reissner's membrane --\> hair cells on basilar membrane move (endolymph) --\> Hair cell movement = channel opening and depolarization--\> glutamate release and AP on CN VIII --\> auditory nucleus --\> Inferior colliculus --\> Auditory cortex
39
Acoustic reflex
Low frequency --\>CN VIII --\> auditory nuclei --\> BOTH Superior olivary nucleus --\> CN VII motor --\> Stapedius contraction
40
Otoacoustic emission reflex
High frequency --\> CN VIII --\> auditory nucleus --\> Superior olivary nucleus --\> outer hair cell inhibition --\> decrease in amplitude
41
Linear acceleration hair cell location
Saccule and utricle
42
Saccule movement
Up/Down
Forward/Backward
43
Utricle movement
Forward/Back
Side to side
44
Angular acceleration
Semicircular canals Rotation moves fluid in opposite direction which moves hair cells
45
Basal ganglia contents
Striatum
Pallidum
Subthalamic nucleus
Substantia nigra
46
Striatum contents
Putamen
Caudate
Nucleus accumbens
47
Normal basal ganglia pathway
Cortex --\> Striatum (Putamen) --\> Globus pallidus --\> Thalamus --\> Cortex
48
Direct pathway
Cortex --\> Putamen --\> GABA connection to GPi --\> Inhibition of GPi = disinhibition of Thalamus --\> Pro motor to cortex
49
Indirect pathway
Cortex --\> Putamen --\> GPe inhibition --\> STN activation --\> GPi activation --\> Thalamus inhibition --\> No motor
50
Substantia nigra
Controls direct/indirect pathway --\> Pro movement Activation of direct Inactivation of indirect
51
Substantia nigra NT and receptors
Dopamine D1 = excitatory = pro direct pathway
D2 = inhibitory = anti indirect pathway
52
Hypokinetic disorders ie Parkinsons and Basal ganglia
Due to overactivity of indirect pathway
53
Hyperkinetic disorders ie Hemiballism and Chorea and basal ganglia
Overactivity of direct pathway or underactivity of indirect pathway
54
Purkinje cells
Located between molecular and granular layer of cerebellum Huge dendritic projections
55
Mossy fibers origin and projection
Origin in contralateral pontine nucleus via MCP Ipsilateral spinal tract via ICP Mossy fibers synapse on granular cells which bifurcate and parallel fibers travel parallel to purkinje fibers
56
Climbing fibers origin and projection
Inferior olivary nucleus via ICP Climbing fibers project into Purkinje cell tree fibers
57
Lateral hemisphere of cerebellum function
Movement planning
58
Paravermal area of cerebellum function
Movement adjustment
59
Vermis function
Postural adjustment/core body muscles
60
Movement planning pathway
Origin in primary and premotor cortex --\> Travel in corticopontine tract of cerebral peduncle --\> Synapse at pontine nuclei --\> cross midline --\> Travel up MCP to cerebellum (mossy fibers) --\> synapse on granular cell (in lateral hemisphere) --\> Parallel fibers travel to and synapse on purkinje cell --\> Synapse onto DENTATE nucleus --\> Output via SCP, cross at decussation, to RN or thalamus (VL) --\> pre motor cortex
61
Movement adjustment pathway
Primary motor cortex --\> Travel to pontine nuclei via corticopontine tract --\> cross midline --\> Mossy fiber travels to granular cell in medial cerebellar hemisphere via MCP --\> Purkinje cell --\> Interposed nucleus --\> Output to RN and Thalamus via SCP, cross at decussation --\> Primary motor cortex
62
Postural adjustment pathway
Origin in spinal cord (thoracic), vestibular nuclei, trigeminal --\> travel to granular cell --\> purkinje --\> Fagistial nucleus --\> output to spinal cord/vestibular nuclei
63
Flocculonodular lobe of cerebellum
Balance and eye corrdination Suppress vestibuloocular reflex Adjust gain of eye
64
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Input for cerebellum Origin for ipsilateral spinal cord and contralateral inferior olivary nucleus fibers
65
Middle cerebellar peduncle
Cerebellar input Contralateral pontine nuclei
66
Pyramidal cells in cortex
Primary output neurons of cortex Ie corticospinal neurons
67
Non pyramidal cells, inhibitory or excitatory
GABA inhibitory
68
Layer(s) of cerebral cortex with mainly pyramidal cells
III
V
VI (pyramidal and modified pyramidal)
69
Layer(s) of cerebral cortex with non pyramidal cells
II
IV
70
Incoming thalamic fibers end in layer...
IV
71
Layer III cells
Extend to other cortical areas
72
Pyramidal cells in Layer V
Send axons to basal ganglia and spinal cord
73
Layer VI cells
Pyramidal cells that send axons to thalamus
74
U fibers
Travel from one gyrus to the next, ipsilaterally
75
Corpus callosum
Contains fibers that connects two hemispheres of brain All areas but temporal lobe
76
Temporal lobe cross communication
Uses anterior commissure
77
Unimodal association areas
High threshold
Complex properties
Associated with primary functional
78
Visual association cortex
Occipital lobe other than superior/inferior to calcarine sulcus
79
Auditory association cortex
Lateral and posterior to primary auditory cortex
80
Somatosensory association cortex
Superior parietal lobe
81
Premotor cortex
Anterior to primary motor Association for motor
82
Complex association areas
P.O.T junction
Prefrontal cortex
83
Anterior chamber of
Between posterior cornea and iris
84
Posterior chamber
Fluid filled posterior to iris and anterior to lens
85
Vitreous cavity
Posterior to lens to retina
86
Uveal tract contents
Iris
Ciliary body
Choroid
87
Edges of anterior chamber
"Angle" Drainage system of eye
88
Aqueous humor
Fluid of anterior chamber Secreted by ciliary body epithelium Structural support and nutritional support (glucose)
89
Iris
Contains fibers for pupillary dilator and pupillary sphinctor
90
Pupillary dilator
Innervated by sympathetic system
91
Pupillary sphincter
Innervated by parasympathetic system
92
Ciliary body
Sits between iris and choroid/retina Accommodation of lens Innervated by CN III PS
93
Choroid
Vascular layer lines posterior eye Blood supply to retina
94
Accommodation (relaxed ciliary muscles)
Relaxed muscles --\> Lens zonules tension maximized --\> lens is flat
95
Accommodation (contracted ciliary muscles)
Contracted ciliary muscle --\> zonules loosened --\> lens curves Focusing power is greater
96
Secretion of aqueous humor
Need Na/K ATPase for Na Need Carbonic anhydrase for HCO3- Decrease in either of these enzymes = less fluid
97
Angle closure glaucoma
Increased intraocular pressure caused by closure of "angle" --\> No drainage of aqueous humor Painful, rapid vision loss
98
Open angle glaucoma
Obstruction unclear No pain, vision changes over time
99
Medical treatments for intraocular pressure
1. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
2. Prostaglandin analogs - prostaglandin receptors in eye
3. Beta blockers
4. Alpha agonists
100
Pathway of pupillary dilator innervation
Hypothalamus --\> intermediolateral gray matter --\> sympathetic chain --\> superior cervical ganglion --\> pupillary dilator
101
Third Nerve palsy
Damage or compression to CN III affecting pupils and eye movement
102
Horner syndrome
Sympathetic pathway interruption
Anhydrosis
Miosis
Ptosis
103
Landmarks of anterior hypothalamus
Anterior commissure Optic chiasm
104
Anterior hypothalamus contents
Medial and lateral preoptic areas
105
Middle hypothalamus landmarks and contents
Fornix, optic chiasm
Median eminence
106
Posterior hypothalamus landmark
Mammillary body
107
Medial preoptic area
Temperature control
Integration with reproduction, inflammatory, water balance, circadian rhythm
108
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Anterior hypothalamus
Circadian rhythm
109
Supraoptic nucleus
Anterior hypothalamus
Oxytocin and vasopressin via magnocellular neurons that extend into posterior pituitary
110
Paraventricular nucleus
Middle hypothalamus
Oxytocin, vasopressin (large neurons)
Autonomic control (small neurons)
111
Infundibular (arcuate) nucleus
Middle hypothalamus
Dopaminergic neurons to control prolactin secretion GRH
112
Hypothalamic control of body temperature
Heat on skin --\> receptors to spinal cord --\> hypothalamus --\> downstream pathway that initiates vasodilation, sweating, beahvioral changes
113
Timolol
Ocular hypertension drug
Beta 2 receptor antagonist (block aqueous humor secretion)
114
Apraclonidine
Alpha 2 receptor agonist
Inhibit aqueous humor secretion
115
Carbachol
Stimulates contraction of ciliary muscle
Increase outflow to decrease ocular hypertension
116
Physostigmine
AchEsterase inhibitor
Promotes ciliary muscle contraction
117
Latanoprost
Prostaglandin FP receptor agonist
Increase outflow of aqueous humor
118
Acetazolamide
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor
Decrease aqueous humor secretion
119
Carbamazepine
Epilepsy medication
Prolong fast inactivation of VG Na channels
120
Phenytoin
Epilepsy medication
Prolong fast inactivation of VG Na channels
121
Lamotrigine
Prolong fast inactivation of VG Na channels
May block Glutamate and Ca channels
122
Topiramate
Prolong fast inactivation of VG Na channels
Activates K+ channels, hyperpolarizing
Increase GABA-A
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor
Glutamate channel inhibition
123
Lacosamide
Prolong SLOW inactivation of Na channels
124
Valproic acid
Prolong fast inactivation of Na channels
Increase GABA activity
Reduce T type Ca channel
125
Zonisamide
Prolong fast inactivation of Na channels
Increase GABA activity
Reduce T type Ca
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor
126
Clobazam
GABA A channel potentiation
Increase frequency of opening
127
Pentobarbital
Directly open GABA channel
128
Ethosuximide
Reduce T type Ca channel antagonis
129
Levetiracetam
Binds to protein on vesicles and inhibit release
130
Felbamate
Glutamate NMDA channel antagonist Block open state of NMDA channel
131
Perampanel
AMPA receptor antagonist Non competitive binding to AMPA receptor
132
Retigabine
Neuronal K channel opener
133
Carbidopa/Levodopa
Dopamine precursor
134
Bromocriptine
Dopamine D2 agonist and D1 partial agonist
135
Ropinirole
Dopamine D2/D3 agonist
136
Tolcapone
Inhibitor of Catechol-O-methyltransferase Inhibits Dopamine breakdown
137
Selegiline
Inhibit MAO-B Inhibits Dopamine breakdown in striatum
138
Benztopine
Muscarinic antagonist
139
Riluzole
Inhibits Glutamate release by blocking VG Na channels NMDA/Kainate antagonist
140
Neostigmine
AchE inhibitor
141
Risperidone
Inhibition of D2 receptors
142
Tetrabenazine
Inhibition of Dopamine uptake into vesicles --\> degradation of dopamine
143
Edrophonium
AchE inhibitor
144
Visual field corresponding to sublenticular limb of internal capsule
Travels to inferior bank of calcarine sulcus = Superior visual field
145
Visual field corresponding to retrolenticular limb of internal capsule
Travels to superior bank of calcarine sulcus = inferior visual field
146
Simple partial seizure
Localization of seizure Does not involve loss of consciousness or alteration of awareness
147
Complex partial seizure
Localized seizure Alteration of awareness/consciousness
148
Generalized seizure
Not localized, wide spread of seizure and cortical activity Loss of consciousness
149
Etiology of infancy and childhood seizures
Prenatal/birth injury
Inborn error of metabolism
Congenital malformation
150
Etiology of seizures in childhood/adolescence
Trauma
Genetic disorder
CNS infection
151
Etiology of seizures in adolescence and young adult
Trauma
Drug intoxication and withdrawal
152
Etiology of seizures in older adult
Acute metabolic disturbance
Stroke
Neurodegenerative
Brain tumor
153
Carbamazepine and other epileptic drugs
Will reduce efficacy because induces CYP3A4
154
Teratogenic antiepileptics
Valproic acid
Carbamazepine
Phenytoin
155
Anti epileptics that can cause SJS and TEN
Carbamazepine
Lamotrigine
Pentobarbital
Phenytoin
156
Rapid IV injection of this = cardiac arrhythmia
Phenytoin
157
Outer plexiform area
Location where photoreceptor cells capture visual information
158
Bipolar cells in retina
Relay visual info from PR cells to ganglion cells
159
Horizontal cells
Mediate lateral interactions PR/bipolar connection
160
Ganglion cell layer
Takes visual information out of retina and to CNS
161
Amacrine cells
Mediate lateral interactions between Bipolar/ganglion cells Visual processing
162
Outer plexiform cell type
Horizontal cells mediating lateral interaction between PR and bipolar
163
Inner plexiform cell type
Amacrine cells mediating lateral interaction between bipolar and ganglion cell Visual processing
164
Fovea
Center of visual field Highest concentration of cones No ganglion cell layer
165
Cherry red spot
Occurs in CRAO and storage diseases Due to ability to see red pigment epithelium below macula Storage disease or lack of perfusion of other areas of retina due to CRAO dont let you see
166
3 barriers for eye
Tight junctions between retinal pigment epithelial cells
Tight junctions in ciliary body epithelial lining (blood aqueous barrier)
Tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells in CRA
167
Phototransduction with no light
Rhodopsin with vit A aldehyde in cis formation --\> Production of cGMP --\> Cation channel open and depolarization --\> glutamate release
168
Cone types and perception of color
Need to compare outputs of all 3 cone populations to determine a type of color
169
Color blindness
Usually lack a cone pigment and can only compare between 2 pigments
170
Non proliferative diabetic retinopathy
Leakage of damaged blood vessels Early stage No noticeable change in vision
171
Proliferative diabetic retiopathy
New blood vessels grow New vessels can bleed and alter vision and even destroy retina Retinal detachment due to scarring
172
Age related macular degeneration
Metabolic by products (drusen) accumulate Causes breakdown between pigment epithelium and choroid --\> neovascularization and subsequent retinal damage
173
Diffuse infiltrating astrocytoma
Most common primary brain tumor Infiltrate brain parenchyma and unresectable
174
Histological grades of astrocytoma
Low grade Anaplastic Glioblastoma multiforme
175
Low grade astrocytoma
Little cellular atypia and no mitotic figures
Non enhancing brain parenchyma expansion
176
Anaplastic astrocytoma
Mitotic figures identifiable
Pleomorphism, anaplasia
2 yr prognosis
177
Glioblastoma multiforme
Anaplastic Necrosis and microvascular proliferation
Pseudopalisading necrosis
Ring like enhancement
178
Pliocytic astrocytoma
Cerebellar hemispheres of children
Cyst and nodular appearance
Rosenthal fibers
179
Oligodendroglioma
Cerebral hemispheres of adults Calcified Monotonous cells, round nuclei, clear cytoplasm Chicken wire capillaries
180
Ependyoma
Arise in ventricles, can cause hydrocephaly
Rosettes, psuedo ventricles
181
Medulloblastoma
High N/C, undifferentiated
Blue cell tumor Rosettes with fibrillary center
Radiosensitive
182
Meningioma
Benign Dural attachment and can be excised
183
Inferior meatus contains
Nasolacrimal duct
184
Middle meatus contains
Smaller ethmoid sinus
Maxillary sinus
Frontal sinus
185
Superior meatus --\>
Ethmoid sinuses
186
Spheno-ethmoid recess
Sphenoid sinus
187
Blood supply to nasal cavity
Ethmoidal branch of ophthalmic
Sphenopalatine
Superior labial branch of facial
188
Sphenopalatine artery origin and travel
Maxillary artery via infratemporal fossa
189
Levator veli palatine function and innervation
Elevate soft palate
Vagus
190
Tensor veli palatine function and innervation
Tenses soft palate
V3
191
Intrinsic laryngeal muscles
1. Cricothyroid
2. Posterior cricoarytenoid
3. Lateral cricoarytenoid
4. Transverse arytenoic
5. Oblique arytenoid
6. Vocal muscles
192
Cricothyroid muscle
Pushes thyroid cartilage forward
Increase vocal ligament tension --\> higher pitch
193
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Rotate arytenoid
Abduction of vocal cords
194
Lateral cricoarytenoid
Adduction of vocal cords
195
Transverse arytenoid
Pull arytenoids together
196
Oblique arytenoid
Contract aryepiglottic fold
197
Vocal muscles
Tense and relax vocal ligaments for sound frequency alteration
198
CN involved in swallowing
V VII IX X XII
199
Vertical conjugate movement (UP)
CN III - Superior rectus Interneurons in superior colliculus --\> bilateral to both CN III --\> Upward saccades
200
Vertical conjugate movement (DOWN)
CN III - Inferior rectus Interneurons bilateral to CN III --\> Downward saccades
201
Horizontal conjugate movement
Frontal eye field --\> Superior colliculus --\> interneurons to contralateral PPRF --\> Abducens nucleus --\> Ipsilateral lateral rectus and contralateral medial rectus via MLF
202
Right frontal eye field tells eyes to move...
To the opposite side
To the left
203
Damage to Left abducens nerve
Left eye medially rotated
204
Damage to left abducens nucleus
Left eye medial
Right eye can't look left
205
Damage to MLF
Left eye can look left but right eye can't
206
Tracking movements pathway
Frontal eye field + Visual association cortex --\> pontine nuclei --\> Flocculus --\> vestibular nucleus --\> Abducens nucleus --\> coordinated eye movement
207
Vestibuloocular reflex pathway
Vestibular afferents --\> ipsilateral vestibular nuclei --\> CN III, IV, VI
208
3 actions fo accommodation reflex
1. Pupils constrict 2. Ciliary contraction --\> Lens bending 3. Medial rectus contraction
209
Accommodation reflex pathway
CN II input --\> Lateral geniculate nucleus --\> sublenticular/retrolenticular limb of IC --\> Visual cortex --\> Visual association cortex --\> output to CN III - Medial rectus, ciliary ganglion (pupillary sphincter and ciliary muscle)
210
Tourette's
Chronic disorder of vocal and motor tics - non purposeful/rapid movements
Coprolalia - Utterance of obscenities
Tics usually preceded by vague discomfort/urge to move body
Increase in youth and peak at age 11 then tend to decrease
211
Huntington's triad of changes
Choreiform
Dementia
Neuropsychic disturbances
212
Huntington's genetic abnormalities
Chromosome 4 mutation CAG repeats increased significantly
More repeats = increased severity
213
OCD
Obsession - Recurrent and intrusive thought/feeling/idea
Compulsion - Conscious, standardized, recurrent behavior
Resistance to activity can lead to increased anxiety
214
Autism ritualistic behaviors
Manipulate toys and objects
Exhibit attachment to certain object
Change = no chill
215
Anatomical location of errors in ADHD, Tourettes, HD, OCD
Cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuits
Basal ganglia
216
Tourette's anatomy
Smaller caudate volume
Increase ventral caudate = tic suppression
217
HD anatomy
Neuronal loss in layers V and VI --\> disrupts loops
Upregulated indirect pathway of basal ganglia
Caudate atrophy
218
OCD anatomy pathophys
Orbitofrontal portions of basal ganglia circuits
219
Physiological dependence
Repeated substance use that results in pattern of tolerance and withdrawal Homeostasis involved in substance use
220
Psychological dependence
Compulsive abuse of substance
221
Drugs of abuse and dopamine release location
Impact dopaminergic neurons in the VTA --\> Nucleus accumbens
222
Cocaine and strokes?
Spasms of smaller arteries can lead to strokes
223
Cocaine withdrawal clinical signs
Overly fatigued
Insomnia/hypersomnia
Agitated/retarded motor
Fucked up dreams
224
Cocaine abuse clinical signs
Cardiomyopathy
Spontaneous labor/abortion
Strokes
Seizures
225
Opiate withdrawal clinical signs
Anxiety
Dysphoria
Aches
Irritability
Dilated pupils
Tachycardia
Vasodilation
226
Opiate abuse clinical signs
Overdose - Coma, pinpoint pupils, respiratory depression
227
Eating reward neuroanatomy pathway
Afferents from CN VII, IX, X --\> solitary tract --\> solitary nucleus --\> Parabrachial nucleus --\> hypothalamus/amygdala
228
Vasovagal reflex
CN X afferents --\> solitary tract --\> solitary nucleus --\> Interneurons to DMN of vagus --\> efferents to GI tract
229
Lateral hypothalamus
Feeding center
Constitutively active
230
Medial hypothalamus
Satiety center
Activated during feeding
231
Compounds that activate ventral hypothalamus and inhibit lateral hypothalamus
Leptin
CCK
Insulin
Sensed by arcuate nucleus
232
Ghrelin
Activated in fasting states
Activates Lateral hypothalamus (feeding)
233
Areas for "normal social eating behavior"
Cingulate cortex
Frontal cortex
Amygdala
234
Hedonic centers of eating
Nucleus accumbens
CIngulate cortex
Hypothalamus
VTA
Frontal cortex
235
Brain regions that support ICCS
Lateral Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Cingulate cortex
VTA
Nucleus accumbens
Septal area
236
Cocaine mechanism of action
Dopamine reuptake inhibitor and promotes dopamine release from vesicles
237
Motivation changes in cocaine abusers comes from...
Reduced orbitofrontal cortex
238
Cocaine addicts and dopamine receptors
Increase basal ganglia D3
Decrease basal ganglia D2
239
Opioid MoA for reward
Opioids inhibit GABAergic neurons that project onto dopaminergic in VTA
Dishinhibition of VTA dopaminergic neurons = more dopamine to Nucleus accumbens
240
Low grade astrocytoma
241
Anaplastic astrocytoma
Mitotic figures
242
Glioblastoma multiforme
Necrosis and capillary proliferation
243
Low grade astrocytoma
244
Glioblastoma multiforme
245
Rosenthal fibers of pliocytic astrocytoma
246
Oligodendroglioma
247
Oligodendroglioma
248
Ependyoma with ependymal rosettes
249
Ependyoma with pseudo rosettes
250
Medulloblastoma
Primitive blue cell tumor
Children
251
Meningioma w/whorls
252
Meningioma w/ Psammoma bodies
253
S motor unit
Slow motor unit
Long sustained contractions with low force
Ie. Neck muscles to hold up head
254
FR motor unit
Fast, relative fatigue unit
More force than S, faster
Slight fatigue over time
255
FF motor unit
Fast, fatigue motor unit
Strongest force, quickest
Fast fatigue after sustained contraction
256
Type I fibers
Primarily oxidative
Can function for long periods of time
S motor unit
257
Type IIa fibers
White, faster than Type I
Both oxidative and glycolytic metabolism
Primarily FR motor units
258
Type IIb fibers
White, fast
Mainly glycolytic metabolism
FF motor units
259
Motor unit recruitment
Smallest --\> largest
Recruit motor units with highest input resistance which is the small diameter S fibers. Then FR and finally FF
260
Stretch reflex
Muscle stretched which causes contraction of said muscle
AND relaxation of opposing muscle
261
