Quiz 2

Question 1

non-experimental research:

Answer 1

nonexperimental research is defined by exclusion: research that is not experimental. The distinction between experimental research and nonexperimental research is based on the degree of control that the researcher has over the subjects and the conditions of the research.

Question 2

qualitative research:

Answer 2

nonexperimental research that asks questions regarding how people make meaning out of the world

Question 3

correlational research:

Answer 3

nonexperimental research that measures two or more variables to determine the degree of relationship between them

Question 4

archival research:

Answer 4

study method that examines existing records to obtain data and test hypotheses.

Question 5

observational research:

Answer 5

The first may be called observational research—that is, research in which the study method in which the researcher observes and records ongoing behavior but does not attempt to change it

Question 6

naturalistic observation:

Answer 6

observational research of subjects in their natural environment carried out to disturb the subjects as little as possible

Question 7

participant-observer research:

Answer 7

observational research in which the observer participates in a group to record behavior

Question 8

nonreactive research:

Answer 8

another term for naturalistic observation in the social sciences, emphasizing that the subjects are unaware that they are being studied

Question 9

unobtrusive research:

Answer 9

another term for naturalistic observation, commonly used in the social sciences

Question 10

inter-observer reliability:

Answer 10

two or more researchers observe the same behaviour at the same time then compare and amend results to create correlations

Question 11

role demand:

Answer 11

participants’ expectations of what an experiment requires them to do

Question 12

observer bias:

Answer 12

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

Question 13

reactive measures:

Answer 13

Measures that influence or obtrude on the behaviour being studied

Question 14

physical traces:

Answer 14

unobtrusive measure of behavior that uses physical evidence

Question 15

archival data:

Answer 15

factual information existing in records or archives

Question 16

content analysis:

Answer 16

involves evaluating the pictures and language in publicly available texts to evaluate a hypothesis.

Question 17

manifest content:

Answer 17

the content of a text or photograph as indicated by measuring the frequency of some objective word, phrase, or action

Question 18

latent content:

Answer 18

the content of a text or photograph as measured by the appearance of themes as interpreted by the researcher

Question 19

case study:

Answer 19

exploratory study of an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis

Question 20

What distinguishes non-experimental from experimental research?

Answer 20

Non-experimental and experimental have a difference in the level of control the researcher has. Examples include: the ability to manipulate the independent variable or can’t randomly assign subjects to control groups or experimental groups. One attempts to avoid any type of intervention, and one manipulates the environment to study a specific theory.

Question 21

Why is non-experimental research often called correlational research?

Answer 21

Because it seeks causes of behavior by looking for correlations among variables.

Question 22

Briefly describe several common varieties of non-experimental research.

Answer 22

Non-experimental research can be conducted in several common ways: observation, archival research, case studies, and surveys. In observation, the researcher simply observes an ongoing behaviour of interest (e.g., pedestrians crossing the street). In archival research, the researcher examines existing records kept by individuals or institutions (e.g., student registration records kept by a university). In case studies, the researcher takes advantage of a relatively rare opportunity to examine an individual, an institution, or a real-world event intensively (e.g., the victims’ responses to a natural disaster). In surveys, the researcher asks people questions, often in the form of a questionnaire (e.g., Canadians’ attitudes toward same-sex marriage).

Question 23

How is naturalistic observation different from the casual observation that most people do?

Answer 23

Naturalistic observation differs from casual observation because it calls for objective records that allow one to evaluate the generality of findings.

Question 24

Describe briefly three common ways of sampling behaviours in observational research.

Answer 24

Time sampling, event sampling, and situation sampling.
Time sampling refers to selecting various time intervals, either systematically or randomly, for their observations.
Event sampling refers to recording each event that meets a predetermined definition (e.g., fighting), which tends to happen infrequently.
Situation sampling refers to observing behaviour in as many different locations (e.g., inschool playground and at home) and under as many different circumstances and conditions as possible.

Question 25

When is physical trace research useful? Identify and describe the two common forms of physical traces and give an example of each.

Answer 25

They are useful when they can be used in ways to test hypotheses about behaviour and preferences. Physical traces are of two forms: use traces and products. Use traces are the physical evidence that results from use (wear and tear); for example, the bare spots on a lawn indicating a short-cut from one building to another. Products are the physical evidence of what is left behind from past behaviour, for example, empty beer bottles left after a party.

Question 26

Propose a hypothesis that may be tested using physical traces.

Answer 26

Ex: Beach users change the physical landscape of the beaches they use. Study changes in environment before and after beach users have been there

Question 27

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using physical traces as measures to test hypotheses about people’s past behaviour?

Answer 27

Advantages: they are non-reactive and can be collected indirectly, so behavior is not influenced by measurement.
Disadvantages: many other factors can lead to erosion and bad sampling.

Question 28

Under what conditions is participant-observer research useful?

Answer 28

It is most useful in studying a small group that is separated from the population as a whole, when little is known about a group, or when the group’s activities are not generally available to public view

Question 29

Describe the ethical problems that participant-observer research poses.

Answer 29

1. Participating in a group leads to problems of objectivity.
2. The act of observing the behavior changes the behavior to be observed.
3. Participant observers cannot always obtain informed consent from the people they study

Question 30

What are the advantages and disadvantages in conducting archival research?

Answer 30

Advantages:
1. saves time in collecting data, data already collected.
2. the data are often a matter of public record, reducing the researcher’s ethical concerns.
Disadvantages:
1. Data are collected by others for a particular purpose, not necessarily designed to address the researcher’s question.
2. Selective deposits, and selective survival
3. Quality of data may not be as good as a researcher anticipates, may be errors in record keeping.
4. Changes may have occurred in the way records are kept or in the definition of categories (e.g., types of crime).
5. Reactivity may have been a problem when the archival record was produced.

Question 31

Outline the steps in conducting content analysis. Illustrate the steps, using your own example.

Answer 31

The first step is to identify a relevant archival source. The second step is to select a representative sample from the source. The last step is to code; that is, to define relevant descriptive categories and units of measure.

Question 32

What problems are associated with analyzing archival data? What steps can researchers take to reduce these problems?

Answer 32

1. Most archival data are collected for non-scientific reasons.
2. by nature carried out after the fact, ruling out alternative hypotheses for particular observed correlations may be difficult.
3. relying on archival data is at the mercy of any biases that may have occurred in collecting the data.
4. finding the specific archives that have the information relevant to your research needs.
   Researchers can reduce this by:
5. prepare before you actually visit the archive, less wasted time
6. Ensure only relevant data is used

Question 33

Outline the characteristics of case studies.

Answer 33

Advantages:
1. Can give a more in-depth view of the phenomenon
2. Compelling evidence to support a theory
Disadvantages:
1.subjective biases are likely to occur
2. It is impossible to establish “causation” because of uncontrolled variables
3. Not predictive, difficult to generalize to other cases

Question 34

What is the difference between research method and research procedure?

Answer 34

A Research Method is a broader term that encompasses all aspects of the study including the logic of the design and the steps to carry it out.
The Research Procedure refers to what the researcher does in translating the design into action, concerned with whether each condition is tested on the same day or not, involves instructions and how they are given.

Question 35

Why is it necessary to conduct a pilot study?

Answer 35

To find the bugs in the procedure.
When a pilot study has been done, followed by a main study that has been run once and replicated once or twice, the credibility of the finding is increased tremendously

Question 36

Population:

Answer 36

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

Question 37

Sample:

Answer 37

a subset of the population

Question 38

sampling frame:

Answer 38

list of individuals from which a sample is actually selected

Question 39

element:

Answer 39

Each individual who falls within the sampling frame

Question 40

open-ended question:

Answer 40

questions a person is to answer in his or her own words

Question 41

closed-ended question:

Answer 41

a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses

Question 42

social desirability:

Answer 42

the tendency of participants to try to give answers that reflect well upon them

Question 43

acquiescence:

Answer 43

yea-saying” and “nay-saying”, A response set-may be true agreement or maybe agreeing/ disagreeing with anything

Question 44

acquiescence bias:

Answer 44

a tendency for respondents to agree with all or most questions asked of them in a survey

Question 45

Likert scale:

Answer 45

a way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

Question 46

response or return rate:

Answer 46

in survey research, the percentage of individuals in the sample who return the completed survey

Question 47

simple random sampling:

Answer 47

a probability sampling procedure in which every sampling unit has a known and equal chance of being selected

Question 48

systematic sampling:

Answer 48

select some starting point and then select every nth element in the population

Question 49

stratified sampling:

Answer 49

A type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group

Question 50

cluster sampling:

Answer 50

a sampling technique in which clusters of participants that represent the population are used

Question 51

For what purposes are surveys used? What are the characteristics of surveys?

Answer 51

Usually to see how people feel about a particular issue. Some might attempt to find out the effect of some event on people’s behavior. They provide a chance to look at correlations between responses and to look for patterns of cause and effect. A major function of surveys is to dispel myths.
Surveys generally involve sampling, self-reporting of behaviours, feelings, thoughts, and preferences, either in oral or written form, and all respondents answer the same set of predetermined questions to allow for comparison of responses.

Question 52

Distinguish among population, sampling frame, sample, and elements. Give an example to illustrate these distinctions.

Answer 52

• Population is a group being studied
• sample is a portion of the population. (ex 10/100)
• sampling frame are the participants.
• an element is each individual from a sample frame

Question 53

What is a representative sample? Why is it important to select a representative sample?

Answer 53

Representative sample is a sample that accurately reflects the population. It is important because when some segments of the population are over-represented in the sample, selection bias results.

Question 54

What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of mail surveys, personal interviews, telephone surveys, and Internet surveys?

Answer 54

Mail surveys:
Advantages:
1. low cost
2. no interviewer bias
3. best for personal, sensitive topics (anonymous)
Disadvantages:
1. questions must be self-explanatory
2. little control over the order of questions answered
3. response bias (e.g., low response or return rate)
Personal interviews:
Advantages:
1. interviewer can control pace and motivation
2. higher response or return rate than in mail surveys
3. use of visual aid
Disadvantages:
1. interviewer bias
2. much more expensive than mail or telephone surveys
3. difficulty reaching interviewees
4. potential interviewer effect S.D.T
5. supervision of interviewers more difficult
Telephone surveys: Advantages:
1. easier access to respondents
2. quick completion
3. tighter supervision of interviewers
4. low cost
5. computer-assisted interviews
Disadvantages:
1. selection bias
2. suitable for short, straightforward surveys
3. interviewer bias
4. reduced accessibility, telemarketers/ call blockers
5. No visual aids
6. less anonymity
Internet Surveys:
Advantages:
1. efficient – low cost and speedy
2. reach a large number of diverse and difficult to reach respondents
3. control sequence and branching of questions,
4. check for invalid responses easily and consistently
Disadvantages:
1. response bias
2. selection bias
3. difficulty in controlling how the survey is completed
4. No clarity of instructions
5. difficulty in checking variables about respondent, (e.g., gender, age) that are of interest to the researcher

Question 55

What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of using open-ended and closed-ended questions in a survey?

Answer 55

Open-ended questions:
Advantages:
1. More complete answers may provide reasons for attitudes or behaviours
2. More likely to discover something unexpected
Disadvantage:
1. Difficult to record and score responses
2. Requires more effort from respondents
3. Difficult for less-articulate respondents to answer
Close-ended questions:
Advantages:
1. Easier to code and analyze
2. less effort from respondents
3. no need to articulate answers
Disadvantage:
1. Reduces expressiveness and spontaneity
2. Respondents may have to choose a less-than-preferred response, alternatives don’t capture the S’s view
3. Difficult to discover errors in coding or misinterpretation of questions

Question 56

State the criteria for a useful questionnaire item.

Answer 56

• be written in language familiar to all respondents.
• be clear and specific. Define the terms and the context clearly.
• Make alternatives clear, exhaustive, and mutually exclusive in the case of closed-ended questions.
• Avoid any leading, loaded, or double-barrelled questions, which would result in biases in responses (e.g., socially desirable responses).
• be as concise as possible.
• all conditional information be presented prior to the key idea.
• researchers should be able to identify acquiescence

Question 57

Describe how the ordering of questions in a survey may influence the quality of data.

Answer 57

For self-administered questionnaires, such as a mail survey, it is advisable to ask first those questions that are of greatest interest to the respondents so as to capture their attention, and to leave the questions about demographic data at the end. In personal or telephone interviews, it is important for the interviewer to establish rapport with the respondent. Such interviews often begin with questions that are easy to answer, such as demographic questionsThe order in which particular questions are asked can influence the answers given by respondents. The generally accepted method is to begin with the most general question and then move on to more specific questions within a general topic. Often, branching items are used to direct respondents to skip inappropriate questions. The use of branchingitems reduces the demand on the respondent’s time

Question 58

Under what circumstances will responses be biased?

Answer 58

A survey with a low response rate will be biased in the direction of the more vocal people. Refusal to cooperate, failure to return a questionnaire, or unavailability of target respondents should be recorded. Possible biases thereby introduced should be kept in mind when the research is evaluated.

Question 59

What is acquiescence? How can researchers identify acquiescence?

Answer 59

a tendency of some respondents to agree to any statement in the questionnaire, regardless of its content.

Question 60

What is the response rate or return rate of a survey? What can researchers do to increase the response rate of a survey, particularly a mail survey?

Answer 60

response rate in survey research is the percentage of individuals in the sample who return the completed survey. Researchers could make sure the survey is something that respondents are passionate or feel strongly about.

Question 61

Discuss two limitations of survey research.

Answer 61

Individual surveys are not good at following trends in real time or over short periods of time. Individual surveys generally cannot provide strong evidence of cause and effect. Survey research is reactive, meaning that respondents know they are being studied and therefore may not provide honest answers. Some may respond according to how they think they should believe or act rather than what they actually believe or do (i.e., the social desirability effect). Others may have a hidden agenda that will motivate them to provide biased answers to facilitate certain personal, social, political, or business action. At other times, people will answer truthfully, but may simply not know the answer to the question or may not have an opinion. Respondents may also make errors in reporting the occurrence of their behaviours, particularly of routine activities

Question 62

Briefly describe the ethical issues in conducting survey research. What steps should researchers take to ensure that ethical principles are followed?

Answer 62

Two important and related ethical issues are particularly relevant in survey research: anonymity and confidentiality. Many surveys are completed anonymously; that is, without any identification of the respondent. A researcher who needs to track whether a person has responded, or who needs to re-survey the same person over a period of time, can use some means of identification (e.g., a number or a code). In such cases, the researcher must destroy any information that could associate a respondent with participation in the study or with the respondent’s data. When participation in a survey is not anonymous, the researcher must assure confidentiality of respondents’ participation in the survey. The data must be accessible only to those in the research team. In addition, the researcher should report the survey results only in aggregate, summarized form so that a particular respondent’s participation or responses cannot be identified. Assurance of confidentiality is particularly important when the survey relates to sensitive topics, such as sexual activities and substance abuse. Informed consent is another important ethical guideline to be followed. A researcher must let respondents know that their participation is voluntary, that they can choose not to answer any of the questions in the survey, and that they can terminate their participation at any time, without any penalty.

Question 63

ABA design:

Answer 63

research design that includes a baseline period, a treatment period, and a subsequent withdrawal of treatment

Question 64

ABAB design:

Answer 64

also called a repeated treatments or replication design; an ABA design with treatment repeated after the withdrawal phase

Question 65

alternating treatments design:

Answer 65

a type of single- participant design that allows the comparison of two different independent variables

Question 66

single-subject research:

Answer 66

single-subject design or single-case research design is a research design most often used in applied fields of psychology, education, and human behavior in which the subject serves as his/her own control, rather than using another individual/group.

Question 67

Baseline:

Answer 67

the measure of behavior before treatment that establishes a reference point for evaluating the effect of treatment

Question 68

Treatment:

Answer 68

In an experiment, the factor (also called an independent variable) is an explanatory variable manipulated by the experimenter. Each factor has two or more levels, i.e., different values of the factor. Combinations of factor levels are called treatments.

Question 69

multiple-baseline design:

Answer 69

research design that introduces different experimental manipulations to see if changes coincide with manipulation. Three types of manipulation: behaviors, subjects, and settings

Question 70

changing-criterion design:

Answer 70

research design that introduces successively more stringent criteria for reinforcement to see if behavior change coincides with the changing criteria.
Ex. Suppose that a child is unable to sit still in class. The teacher may reward the child for sitting still for five minutes at a time until the performance becomes stable. Then the criterion may then be increased in steps, perhaps to 10 minutes, later to 15, and so forth.

Question 71

Name several prominent psychologists in history who used single subjects in psychological research. Briefly describe their areas of research.

Answer 71

Gustav Fechner, who some historians say is the founder of experimental psychology, worked extensively on individual participants—him- self and his brother-in-law. Beginning in 1860, Fechner invented the basic psychophysical methods that are still used to measure sensory thresholds and discovered principles of psychophysics that are still taken seriously. Twenty- five years later, inspired by Fechner’s work, Hermann Ebbinghaus did his experimental work on memory. Following Fechner’s example, Ebbinghaus used himself as his own participant. Wilhelm Wundt, who is credited with founding the first psychological laboratory in 1879, conducted experiments measuring various psychological and behavioral responses in individual participants. Wundt’s famous student, E. B. Titchener, espoused the use of introspection, which is the careful reporting of one’s own experience. Because this procedure required a great deal of training, much of his work was done using one or a few individuals. Finally, I. P. Pavlov did his pioneering work on conditioning with individual dogs as subjects.Gustav Fechner in psychophysics, Hermann Ebbinghaus in memory, and I. P. Pavlov in conditioning of individual dogs

Question 72

Compare the assumptions between the single-subject approach and the individual-differences, group-research approach to psychological research.

Answer 72

Study Questions1. Name several prominent psychologists in history who used single subjects in psychological research. Briefly describe their areas of research.
Gustav Fechner, who some historians say is the founder of experimental psychology, worked extensively on individual participants—him- self and his brother-in-law. Beginning in 1860, Fechner invented the basic psychophysical methods that are still used to measure sensory thresholds and discovered principles of psychophysics that are still taken seriously. Twenty- five years later, inspired by Fechner’s work, Hermann Ebbinghaus did his experimental work on memory. Following Fechner’s example, Ebbinghaus used himself as his own participant. Wilhelm Wundt, who is credited with founding the first psychological laboratory in 1879, conducted experiments measuring various psychological and behavioral responses in individual participants. Wundt’s famous student, E. B. Titchener, espoused the use of introspection, which is the careful reporting of one’s own experience. Because this procedure required a great deal of training, much of his work was done using one or a few individuals. Finally, I. P. Pavlov did his pioneering work on conditioning with individual dogs as subjects.
Gustav Fechner in psychophysics, Hermann Ebbinghaus in memory, and I. P. Pavlov in conditioning of individual dogs2. Compare the assumptions between the single-subject approach and the individual-differences, group-research approach to psychological research.

Question 73

What are the advantages of the single-subject approach?

Answer 73

It focuses on an examination of behavior change in one person and that allows for intensive study of the client and experimental evaluation of treatment for the client.
It focuses on bigger effects. Researchers would rather not spend time investigating the effects of variables that produce small effects but would rather find the powerful variables that produce large effect.
It only requires a small number of subjects, so it’s great if there are limited subjects.
It is not required to withhold potentially beneficial treatment form patients in order to provide a control group.
Flexibility in Design
The design is flexible. The design can be changed or manipulated to ensure it’s the best design for that subject. (i.e., rewards can be changed, conditions can be changed)

Question 74

What are the disadvantages of the single-subject approach?

Answer 74

Some effects are small compared to the amount of variability. It might be impossible to control other sources of variability to observe the effect.
Some experimental effects are by definition between-subjects’ effects. It is impossible to have a subject that receives two opposite sets of instructions or is taught the same material by two different methods.

Question 75

What are the common single-subject research designs?

Answer 75

Comparison (AB Designs).
Withdrawal of Treatment (ABA Designs)
Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs)
alternating treatments design

Question 76

What is the ABA design? What two principal problems are associated with this design?

Answer 76

a research design that includes a baseline period, a treatment period, and a subsequent withdrawal. the argument that the treatment is the cause of the change is considerably strengthened if the treatment is withdrawn after a period of time and the behavior shows a return toward the baseline.
First, the effect of the manipulation may not be fully reversible. If the treatment were a lesion of the brain that causes obesity, clearly it would be impossible to reverse. If a learning procedure causes a more or less permanent change in a participant’s behavior, that, too, would not be reversible.
The second problem with the ABA design is that you may want to leave the participants in the new condition rather than return them to their original state. Treatments involving weight control, phobias, and compulsive behaviors are typical examples in which it would be unethical and undesirable to withhold treatment until the patient returned to the original state. In such cases, the experimenter may withdraw the treatment temporarily before the behavior change has reached the desired level. After the behavior shows some reversal of the trend toward improvement, he or she reinstates the treatment.

Question 77

When is the ABAB design superior to the ABA design?

Answer 77

It is superior to ABA when the subject would receive better treatment as a result of an ABAB design, rather than an ABA design. Sometimes, introducing the treatment after a withdrawal period can produce an almost eliminating effect on the behavior.
Repeated presentation and withdrawal of a variable can produce strong evidence for the validity of the independent variable’s effect.

Question 78

What is the baseline? Why is it necessary to maintain a stable baseline before treatment begins?

Answer 78

Baseline: the measure of behavior before treatment that establishes a reference point for evaluating the effect of treatment
It is important because a stable baseline is what all effects will be measured against. Without a stable baseline, you might not know if a specific treatment was particularly helpful.

Question 79

What is a multiple-baseline design? Under what conditions is this design useful?

Answer 79

multiple-baseline design: a research design that introduces different experimental manipulations to see if changes coincide with manipulation. Three types of manipulation: behaviors, subjects, and settings. An effective way to demonstrate that the manipulation caused the behavior change by introducing manipulation at different times for each of several different behaviors to see if the onset of behavior change coincides with the manipulation.
useful if the expected behavior change is irreversible, because you don’t have to remove the treatment to demonstrate causality. Each untreated situation acts as a second baselinefor the treatment conditions.

Question 80

What is a changing-criterion design? Under what conditions is this design useful?

Answer 80

a research design that introduces successively more stringent criteria for reinforcement to see if behavior change coincides with the changing criteria.After a baseline measurement, a reward can be given for meeting a lax criterion of the behavior. After the behavior stabilizes at that level, the criterion can be raised until the behavior stabilizes again, and so forth. If the behavior begins to change after each change in the criterion, then the conclusion that the reward is the cause of the improvement is rather convincing.
a changing-criterion design is useful when the behavior change is irreversible or when a return to the initial baseline is not desirable

Question 81

Describe briefly two areas of psychology in which the single-subject approach is commonly used.

Answer 81

1. The single-participant design has a rich tradition in other areas of psychology. We mentioned earlier that Gustav Fechner, the founder of psychophysics, used single subjects extensively. This practice is still common in psychophysical experiments, which tend to show less variability and larger effects than some other types of experiments.
2. So, the single-subject approach is commonly used in clinical psychology and psychophysics as well as health psychology, cognitive psychology, etc.