quiz 2 Flashcards
define learning
- Learning is a process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior.
- the result of experiences and interactions with environment
- not the result of maturation or temporary conditions (illness)
Cognitive versus Behavioural Views of Learning
Cognitive Psychologists: emphasize the change in knowledge and that learning is on internal mental activity that can’t be observed directly
Behaviourists: believe that the outcome of learning is a change in behaviour that emphasizes the effects of the external events on the individual
Contiguity Learning:
Contiguity Learning:
• the association of two events because of repeated pairing.
• Aristotle was the first to identify the phenomenon
• plays a large role in Classical Conditioning.
ex: stim - calgary / stampede
Repeated Pairing = Association Of Two Events
Stimulus: First Event - event that activates the behaviour
Response: Memory Of Second Event - observable reaction to stimulus
(chip chocolat gomme peanut)
Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
• Discovered by Pavlov in the 1920’s. Conditioning Video
• Focuses on how we learn involuntary emotional or
physiological (the internal functioning of living things – fear, increased heartbeat, salivation, sweating) responses to stimuli.
• Through classical conditioning, Pavlov discovered that animals can be trained to react involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect on them, so that the stimulus, through contiguity, or pairing together, can elicit a response automatically.
Classical conditioning 7 stages
- stimulus
- response
- neutral stimulus
- unconditioned stimulus
- unconditioned response
- conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
stimulus
Event that activates behaviour. What
did that in Pavlov’s example?
- the food
response
Observable reaction to a stimulus.
What was it in Pavlov’s example?
- salivation
neutral stimuus
A stimulus not connected to a
response. What was it in Pavlov’s example?
- the bell
unconditioned stimulus
Automatically
produces an emotional or physiological response.
What was it in Pavlov’s example?
- food
Unconditioned Response
Naturally occurring
emotional or physiological response. What was it in
Pavlov’s example?
- salivate
conditioned stimulus
Evokes an emotional
or physiological response after conditioning. What
was it in Pavlov’s example?
- bell
conditioned response
Learned response to
previously neutral stimulus. What was it in Pavlov’s
example?
- salivation in response to bell
story writing an contiguity example
Unconditioned Stimulus when you start school = writing a story.
• Writing a story = no emotional response so Neutral Stimulus.
story writing and contiguity - absolute silence + writing
How does absolute silence and no conversation make kids feel?
• How does repeatedly pairing absolute silence and writing make kids feel?
absolute silence and no convo makes kids feel isolated and lonely. CONDITIONED STIMULUS of writing produces CONTIONED RESPONSE of feelings of isolation and loneliness
story writing and contiguity - punishment + writing
How does punishment make kids feel?
• How does repeatedly pairing punishment and writing make kids feel about writing?
punishment of writing lines makes kids feel sad and rejected. CONDITIONED STIMULUS of writing produces CONDITIONED RESPONSE of kids feeling sad and rejected
story writing and contiguity - positive feedback + writing
How does getting positive feedback make kids feel?
• So how does repeatedly pairing the notion your writing will be read and feedback by the teacher
and classmates make kids feel about writing?
getting a response from someone makes you feel connected through communication so CONDITIONED STIMULUS of writing produces CONDITIONED RESPONSE of making you feel cared for and connected
further conditioning discoveries
- Response Generalization: Responding in the same way to similar stimuli. - the dog responds to similar sounding bells, chimes, etc.
- Stimulus Discrimination: Responding differently to similar but not identical stimuli. - dog learns the difference between the bell and similar sounding bell
- Extinction: Gradual disappearance of learned response. - the bell rings, but the food does not follow so salivation, eventually the conditioned response, becomes extinct
classical conditioning implication for teachers
- Apply positive, pleasant events with learning tasks
- Help students risk anxiety producing situations voluntarily and successfully.
- Help student recognize differences and similarities among situations so that they can discriminate and generalize appropriately.
- Task: Generate some strategies for using contiguity in your classroom: teaching a routine; silent reading; working on math problems; doing an oral report; entering the classroom; praying, ending the day; working on a long project.
classical conditioning vs operant conditioning
classical: associate an involuntary response and a stimulus
operant: associate a voluntary behaviour and a consequence
Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner
- Operants are deliberate and voluntary behaviours.
- Operant Conditioning is the learning process by which voluntary behaviour (operants) is strengthened or weakened by that which happens before the behaviour, the antecedents, or that which happens after the behaviour, consequences.
- A antecedents – precede
- B behaviour (operants)
- C consequences– follow
types of consequences for Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner
Positive Reinforcement strengthens behaviour by presenting a desired stimulus after a behaviour.
- Negative Reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus.
- Punishment a process that weakens or suppresses behaviour.
Consequences:
Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement
they both strengthen behaviour
- Positive Reinforcement: We behave in a certain way…we operate on our environment…the behaviour produces (adds) a new positive stimulus, so we increase the behaviour.
- Negative Reinforcement: We behave in a certain way, we operate on our environment, the behaviour removes (negative = subtraction) an aversive stimulus, so we increase the behaviour
positive reinforcement example:
Sue raises her hand to speak and the reinforcing stimulus is that the teacher is nice and she gets praised so Sue raises her hand more
Praise is both a reinforcing stimulus and an antecedent stimulus producing more behaviour.
negative reinforcement example
The teacher is stern and grumpy during a discussion. As students begin raising their hands, she becomes
happier. The stern and grumpy teacher is the aversive stimulus.
The aversive is removed so the hand raising increases. The removal of grumpiness becomes and antecedent stimulus provoking more hand raising.
Presentation vs Removal Punishment
• Presentation Punishment: Presenting adverse or unpleasant consequences. If we behave in a way and are presented with presentation punishment as an unpleasant stimulus, we decrease the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
• Removal Punishment: Removing privileges. If we behave in a certain way and are presented with removal punishment, we remove a
pleasant stimulus so we are less likely to behave that way.
presentation punishment example
we call out in class and are presented with the punishment of being moved to the front of the room, so we are less likely to call out in the future.
removal punishment example
we call out in class, and we do not get to go to recess, so we are less likely to call out in class
reinforcement vs punishment
chart on slide 10, pls review
punishment weakens or suppresses behaviour
reinforcement strengthens behaviour
controlling antecedents
Antecedents are the events preceding behaviour that provide information about which
behaviour will lead to positive or negative consequences
- cues and prompts
cue define (controlling antecedent)
Cue is an antecedent that sets up a desired behaviour. A cue can be a routine you set up. (visual schedule)
prompt define (controlling antecedents)
Prompt is a reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue. (what are you going to do next)
controlling antecedent example
Entering the room
- cue: slide displayed (words and pictures) upon entering room with putting away back packs, sitting down, and silent reading
- prompt: “Look at the slide and get ready.”
Encouraging Positive Behaviour
Praise as Reinforcer - Perhaps the Most Used
effective praise is…
- specifies the particulars of an accomplishment.
- orients students toward better appreciation of their own behaviour.
- attributes success to effort and ability, implying they can do it again and it’s not luck.
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - premack principle
Premack Principle – follow a less preferred activity with a preferred activity. The more preferred activity is the reinforcer for the less preferred.
• Complete 10 questions and no homework
• Complete 10 questions and then a movie
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - shaping
Shaping – Reinforce each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behaviour.
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - Successive Approximations
Successive Approximations - successively approximating small components that make up complex behaviour.
- ex: the pieces that might look like something (what you want child to do, but not exactly right)
Encouraging Positive Behaviour: 6 different methods
- Premack Principle
- shaping
- Successive Approximations
- Positive Practice
- Reinforcement schedules (Think of praising hand raising).
- Desired Reinforcers
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - positive practice
Practice correct responses immediately after errors. The “do-over”.
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - reinforcement schedules
• Continuous Reinforcement – Reinforcer is presented after each response.
Use when information, skills, and behaviours are first being mastered.
• Intermittent Reinforcement – Reinforcer is presented after someresponses. This
encourages persistence and helps kids maintain learning without constant reinforcement.
• Variable Schedules of Reinforcement – Students will persist in behaviour longer when
reinforcement is unpredictable. If they are only working for reinforcement, and you reinforce
continuously using a fixed schedule, the behaviour will stop quickly once reinforcement stops
Encouraging Positive Behaviour - Desired Reinforcers
Desired Reinforcers are those students want to get. Use cues and prompts to ensure behaviour that “can” reinforced is produced.
Managing Undesirable Behaviours
Punishment does not lead to positive behaviour.
All it does is suppress negative behaviour. After
using punishment, we need to stress what
behaviour should occur and provide
reinforcement.
When using punishment, we should:
• try and use negative reinforcement rather than
punishment;
• be consistent in the application of punishment;
• focus on the students’ actions, not on the
students personal qualities;
• adapt the punishment to the infraction.
4 Behavioural Approaches to TEACHING & MANAGEMENT
- Good Behaviour Game
- group consequences
- contingency contract
- token reinforcement program
Good Behaviour Game
Class is divided into teams and each team gets demerit points for breaking rules. The team with the fewest marks gets a reward.
Group Consequences
Group Consequences are reinforcers or punishments for a hole class. Being quieter than the radio is a positive reinforcement group consequence. Being allowed free time as long as you’re quiet.
Contingency Contract
Contingency Contract is a formal agreement with one student that states what they must do to earn a reward.
Token Reinforcement Programs
Token Reinforcement Programs are systems in which tokens are rewarded for academic work and positive classroom behaviour. The tokens can be exchanged for rewards and privileges.
why token reinforcement programs/systems may be necessary (6 reasons)
1) to motivate the completely unmotivated;
2) when other approaches fail;
3) to deal with kids with a history of failure;
4) to deal with an out of control class;
5) slow learners benefit;
6) severe behaviour problems benefit.
4 behavioural LEARNING approaches
- Direct Instruction (see handout)
- Practice theory (outlined on the next two slides)
- Distributed Practice.
- Frequent formative assessment.
direct instruction
- Orientation and accessing prior knowledge – review, connect new with old, objectives
- Modeling and presentation - demonstrating in small steps
- Checking for understanding (continuously) – frequent questions to ensure understanding
- Structured practice – teacher-led lock step coverage of practice examples as a class
- Guided practice – semi-independent seatwork with 90% accuracy and success with lots of teacher circulation where they reinforce, check for understanding, and correct…students work on a small part of the overall task and the teacher checks for understanding before next step
- Independent practice – students practice new learning independenlty while teacher monitors…can also be assigned for homework
- Closure – questions to ascertain whether students have achieved the objectives
Practice Theory
facilitates the retention of concepts and skills.
six principles of effective practice
shaping length monitoring level of accuracy distributed practice amount of time in between practice sessions
shaping practice
The goal of all practice is mastery; the ability to perform a skill independently without error. When the principle of shaping is adhered to, the teacher moves the students through practice with varying levels of assistance: lock step or structured, guided practice, and independent practice or homework. In the initial stages of learning, the structured method ensures mistakes are not modeled when memory is most vulnerable to memorizing incorrect practice.
length practice
Short, intense, highly motivated practice periods produce more learning than
fewer but longer practice periods. The more a student practices, the longer it takes to
forget it.
monitoring practice
The initial stage of practice must be monitored as incorrect performance at this stage will interfere with learning. Immediate corrective feedback must be given so that incorrect practice is not perpetuated. In addition, correct learning is stabilized when it is reinforced quickly.
level of accuracy practice
85% to 95% level of accuracy at the current practice level should be achieved before moving on.
distributed practice
Distributed practice is the provision of multiple practice periods over a period of time. Without practice to reinforce it, 80% of new information is forgotten within 24 hours. With periodic reviews spread out over an extended period of time, such as four or five months, nearly all new information can be retained. The effect is cumulative: The more information a person has stored in memory, the easier it is for him or her to learn new information. This is because more items of information are available from which to form memory connections.
amount of time between practice sessions
Practice periods should be close together
at the beginning of learning; once learning is at an independent level, then the practice sessions can be spaced further apart. Thus, guided practice sessions should occur immediately after new learning has been introduced and should continue frequently until independence is achieved. The simplest form of guided practice is in the form of oral review of concepts and skills.
Shaping and Successive Approximations
• Break down complex behaviour into small
steps.
• Focus on the small components that make
up the complex behaviour which is called
shaping or successive approximations.
Using shaping to…
• reinforce the attainment of each sub-skill.
• reinforce improvements in accuracy.
• reinforce longer and longer periods of
performance or participation.
distributed practice
Distributed practice is the provision of multiple practice periods over a period of time.
Without practice to reinforce it, 80% of new information is forgotten within 24 hours.
With periodic reviews spread out over an extended period of time, such as four or five months, nearly all new information can be retained. The effect is cumulative: the more information a person has stored in memory, the easier it is for them to learn new information. This is because more items of information are available from which to form memory connections.
Piagetian Interpretation
Distributed practice can do more than expose students to the same knowledge and skills. Instead, it is an opportunity to build on schemes, via assimilation to make them more complex. If a child is unable to assimilate the new information, reviewing it thoroughly over many days in diverse ways may promote accommodation or the formation of a new thinking scheme.
Behaviouristic Interpretation
The knowledge and skills students are to acquire is
clearly identified. The daily review and practice allows the teacher to reinforce correct
responses with praise and feedback. The praise and feedback serve as reinforcement. (ex: jeopardy)
Distributed Practice - Anything Taught can be Practiced
Use Bloom’s Taxonomy to Ask All Levels of Questions
what are the 6 categories of blooms
• Knowledge: What is 5 x 4?
• Comprehension: What are two ways to represent 5 x 4?
• Application: Tom, Sue, Sam, Joey, and Janie have $5 each. How much
do they have in all?
• Analysis: Solve the following 5x4, 5x5, 5x6, 5x7. What is the pattern
of the products?
• Synthesis: Find other patterns in multiplication products?
• Evaluation: What are the easiest times tables for you to remember?Why?
Comparing behaviourist view and cognitive view of learning
• The cognitive view of learning is a general approach that views learning as an ______ mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. In the cognitive view, knowledge
is learned and changes in knowledge make changes in behaviour possible.
• In the behavioural view, the new behaviour itself is what is learned
SEE CHART ON CHAP 8 SLIDE 1
The Importance Of Knowledge In Cognition
The cognitive approach suggests that one of the most important elements in the learning process is what the individual brings to new learning situations. What we already know is the foundation and
frame for constructing all future learning.
Knowledge determines to a great extent what we will
pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember and forget
domain specific knowledge vs general knowledge
domain: information that is useful in a particular
situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic (ex: process to multiplication, fraction is a part of a whole, the sound “sh” can be spelled multiple ways)
general: information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations (ex: problem solving, sounds learned can be applied to reading, participating in a conversation)
Cognitive Information Processing Model of Memory - 3 types
sensory memory
working memory
long term memory
sensory memory
A letter, image, or sound appears on the screen and disappears. Do we
perceive (detect or interpret) it or not? 1-3sec in duration
working memory
What we saw is available for further processing as soon as we perceive it.
We choose to focus on the letter which now has more letters attached. We choose to word process the word….we write it, we change the font, we change the colour, we say it in our minds….it is being processed. 15-20sec in duration. 7 (plus or minus 2) pieces of information.
long term memory
After thorough processing, the word is saved as a file. It is part of all the
other memory on the computer. This file connects to others. We can find it because we
organize our folders on the computer. We even remember where we were and how we were
feeling when we learned it. Practically unlimited capacity and duration.
sensory memory and perception (3 types)
top down processing
bottom up processing
gestalts
top down processing
Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually driven perception.
(is this something I have seen before? using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information)
bottom up processing
Perceiving based on noticing separate defining
features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern.
(what am i seeing? taking sensory info and then assembling and integrating it)
gestalts
German for pattern or whole. Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes
(When we organize sensory information into patterns and relationships using either top-down or bottom-up processing, we perceive organized and meaningful wholes or gestalts)
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long Term Memory (4 components)
elaboration
organization
imagery
context
elaboration
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long Term Memory
adding meaning to new information by connecting it to existing knowledge.
• paraphrase in own words
• accessing prior knowledge
• create examples
• construct analogies, comparing new learning to what we already know
• explain to a peer
organization
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long Term Memory
Ordered and logical network of relations. Well organized material is easy
to process and, therefore, learn. Information can be:
• Chunked
• Placed In A Structure (Figure 8.6 In Text)
imagery
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long Term Memory
Information coded both visually and verbally is easier to learn. The right combination of pictures and words can make a significant difference in student learning. Don’t overload working memory by having too much visual and verbal information.
context
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long Term Memory
The total setting or situation that surrounds and interacts with a person or event. It includes internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions to shape development and
learning.
Levels of Processing Theory
The more completely information is processed, the better our chances of remembering it.
• analyze it: analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange, divide, compare,
select, explain, infer
• connect it to prior knowledge (IMPORTANT)
• compare two things
• classify it by categorizing it
• examine differing points of view to make a generalization
• summarize in your own words
• create a robust metaphor
• identify cause and effect
• explain it to someone else
