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NURS1001 > Quiz 1 - week 1, 2 + 3 content > Flashcards

Quiz 1 - week 1, 2 + 3 content Flashcards

1
Q

Define homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment —> being in a state of equilibrium

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2
Q

How is homeostasis maintained?

A

Maintained via a regulatory process called feedback —> a loop of events (positive and negative feedback)

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3
Q

What are the three main components of a feed back loop?

A

Receptor —> monitors that aspect of physiology

Control Centre—> sets the normal range, receives input and sends output when required

Effector —> produces a response that changes the physiology

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4
Q

What is the process of a feedback loop?

A
  1. Stimulus - any info the body recieves that initiates a response
  2. Recpetor - an organ or other part recieves a stimulus and transmits the message to the organism’s control centre
  3. Control Centre: recieves a message about the stimuli from the receptor and sends a message to the effector to enact a change
  4. Effector: a blood vessel or gland that responds to a stimulus
  5. Response: action mafe by the organism to counteract change to ensure that the stable state is maintained
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5
Q

What are the two types of control mechanisms?

A

Intrinsic (local) controls:
- restricted to the tissue or cell involved
- nearly cells respond to the change, usually recieving a chemical message

Reflec contols:
- long-distance signalling
- when there are widespread changes throughout the body (systemic changes)
- coordinated regulation of several organ toward a common goal
- maintains the dynamic steady state in the internal environment as a whole

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6
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

the response counteracts or antagonises the condition -> minimises it

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7
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

the response enhances the condition -> self-perpetuating events

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8
Q

Explain the regulation og blood glucose levels with insulin and other hormones

A

normal glucose concentration -> blood glucose concentration rises -> pancreas secretes more insulin and less glucagon -> cells remove glucose from blood and covert to glycogen -> blood glucose falls

normal glucose concentration -> blood glucose concentration falls -> pancreas secretes less insulin and more glucagon -> cells convert glycogen and release it into the blood -> blood glucose rises

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9
Q

Why is cellular homeostasis important?

A

maintain their intracellular environment so that conditions remain optimal for the manufacturing and processing taks that take place within

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10
Q

what is intracellular fluid?

A

fluid inside the cells

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11
Q

what is extracellular fluid?

A

fluid outside or between the cells

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12
Q

what factors impact homeostasis?

A

condition
temp
pressure
amount of nutrients
amount of wastes

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13
Q

What do cells do when fluid changes?

A

if fluid inside the intracelluar environemtn drop -> cell obttains additional fluid from the surrounding extracellular fluid

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14
Q

What do cells do when O2 and CO2 changes?

A

if O2 in cells are too low and CO2 accumulates -> exchange w/ blood and extracellular fluid restores these levels in cells

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15
Q

What happens when sodiumf fluctuates during neuron signalling?

A

When the neuron is at rest, most of the sodium is in the extracellular fluid.

During neuron signalling, sodium moves into the cell (across the cell membrane).

Towards the end of neuron signalling, excess sodium is removed

Homeostasis is restored, with most sodium being returned to the extracellular fluid. If the sodium was not returned to the extracellular fluid, the neuron would not be able to send another signal.

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16
Q

In intracellular proportion, what levels are soidum, postassium and calcuim are?

A

sodium -> low

potassium -> high

calciun -> low

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17
Q

In extracellular proportion, what levels are soidum, postassium and calcuim are?

A

sodium -> high

potassium -> low

calciun -> high

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18
Q

Define:
anterior/ventral
posterior/ dorsal
superior
inferior
cranial
caudal
proximal
distal

A

anterior/ventral = towards the front of the body
posterior/dorsal = towards the back of the body
superior = above
inferior = below
cranial = towards the head
caudal = towards the tail
proximal = closer to a structure’s origin
distal = durther from a structure’s origin

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19
Q

What is the function of the nucleus

A
  • control centre
  • contrains genetic material
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20
Q

What is the function of the mitochondria?

A
  • powerhouse
  • produces energy for cellular function
  • participate ATP production
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21
Q

What is the function of rough ER?

A

manufacture all proteins secreted by cells -> so it is abundant in secretory cells

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22
Q

What is the functon of smooth ER?

A

involved in lipid and steroid synthesis, metablosim of carbohydrates, drug detoxification
- found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells

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23
Q

What is the function of the golgi apparatus?

A
  • processor of new proteins
  • transport channel and secretor of cell waste
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24
Q

what is the function of the cytoskeleton?

A

prvides structure, organisation, shape and guidance

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25
Q

What is the function of cells containing contractile proteins?

A

mediate cell movement

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26
Q

In patients that are intubated, the tube bypasses the cilla allowing the air directly enter the lungs. What is the function of cilia nd why wpuld intubation increase a patient’s risk of infection?

A

cilia beats back and forth in a stroke like pattern -> forces mucus and debris back up the trachea where it can be coughed up

during intbation, the cilia are rendered ineffective so muscus and particles cannot be moved upwards -> infection can easily travel to the lungs

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27
Q

What is the function of microvilli and where are cells with microvilli located?

A

increase the cell surface area
functions: absorption, secretion and cellular adhesion
found in the gastrointestinal tract and kidney

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28
Q

What is the function of a flagellum and what cells in the human have it?

A

propulsion (movement)
sperm

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29
Q

Describe the structure of the cell membrane

A

A phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded into it, and carbohydrates protruding out of it

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30
Q

What is a phospholipid?

A

A phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded into it, and carbohydrates protruding out of it

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31
Q

What is the cell memrane responsible for?

A
  • Selectively letting things in and out of the cell
  • Cell-to-cell communication
  • Maintaining the shape of the cell
  • Protecting the cell
  • Producing energy (in prokaryotes)
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32
Q

What are the different types of proteins that can be embedded into the cell membrane?

A

Integral transmembrane proteins= Goes all the way through the cell membrane

Integral membrane proteins = Only go part way through the cell membrane -> important for the cell to cell communication

Peripheral membrane proteins= Attached to the inside and outside surfaces of the cell membrane and assist with communication with the cell environment

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33
Q

Function of carbohydrates?

A

contribute to cell-to-cell communication and cell recognition

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34
Q

Function of cholesterol?

A

maintains cell membrane stability and fluidity

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35
Q

What is passive transport?

A

the movement of substances with no energy input (relies on kinetic energy) -> attempts to achieve equlibrium

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36
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The movement of ANY substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration”

37
Q

What is faciliated diffusion?

A

When certain molecules are too big to diffuse through the cell membrane, facilitated diffusion occurs —> a protein channel (GLUT) can create a passage through which the molecule can diffuse

38
Q

What molcules are transported via facilitated diffusion?

A
  • Charged ions (both positive and negative)
    • Sodium, chlorine (salt)
  • Large molecules
    • Glucose and amino acids
  • Polar molecules (transported by transmembrane channels)
  • Non-polar molecules (transported by water-soluble carriers)
    • Retinol and fatty acids are poorly soluble in water
39
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The movement of water from an area of low SOLUTE concentration to an area of high SOLUTE concentration through a semipermeable membrane”

40
Q

What is the difference b/w diffusion and osmosis?

A

Diffusion
- movement of any substance
- semipermeable membrane is optional

Osmosis
- only movement of water
- semipermeable membrane is essential

Simi.
- type of passive transport
- attempts to achieve equilibrium
- subtances travel sown there concentration gradient

41
Q

What is active transport?

A

The movement of a substance against its concentration gradient through the use of energy
- involves pump (carrier proteins) embedded in the cell membrane -> activated by an energy payload of ATP

42
Q

What is the driving force of active transport?

A

Depends on the availability of ATP and a carrier protein.

43
Q

Explain why extraceullur fluid is importnace for cellular transport?

A
  • surrounds all the cells in the body
  • aids in communication b/w cells and the external environment
  • changes within the local environment are directly communicated via the extracellular fluid
  • protects and maintains a constant environment so cells can function
44
Q

What is respiration?

A

the exchange of gases b/w the atmosphere, blood and cells

45
Q

What are the 3 processes in respiration?

A
  1. ventilation (breathing)
  2. external (pulmonary) respiration
  3. internal (tissue respiration)
46
Q

What occurs during external respiration

A
  • oxygen will diffuse from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries
    • CO2 moves in the opposite direction
47
Q

What occurs during internal respiration?

A

-oxygen will diffuse from the systemic capillaries into the tissue
- CO2 moves in the opposite direction

48
Q

What structures are in the upper tract?

A

nose
pharynx
assoicated structures

49
Q

What structures are in the lower tract?

A
  • Trachea
  • Larynx
  • bronchi + bronchioles
  • Lungs
    • Pulmonary alveoli
50
Q

What are the accessory structures?

A
  • Diaphragm
  • Ribs and intercostal muscles
51
Q

What structures are in the conducting zone?

A

nose and nasal passengers
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi + bronchioles

52
Q

What is the conducting zone?

A
  • Leads air from the external environment towards the structures of gaseous exchange
  • they filter, warm, moisten and conduct the air
  • represents VD (anatomical dead space)
    • approx. 150ml/person
53
Q

What structures are in the respiratory zone?

A

respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveoli

54
Q

What is the respiratory zone?

A
  • where gas exchange occur
  • bronchioles and alveolar ducts (10%) gas exchange
  • alveoli (90%) gas exchange
    • Each alveoli is extremely small in order to increase SA:V
    • Function:
      • Type 1: gas exchange
        • thin, squamous epithelia cells located in the alveolar wall
        • O2 diffusion occurs across these cells
55
Q

What is the function of pleaurae?

A
  • lines the thoracic wall and diaphragm (parietal pleurae) and extends onto the lung (visceral pleurae).
    • It reduces friction during breathing.
    • During breathing, helps to create a negative pressure (breathe in) and a more positive pressure (breathe out).
56
Q

What is the function of the respiratory membrane?

A
  • allow the passage of gas between blood vessels and alveoli
  • composed of:
    • layer of type I and type II alveolar cells associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar wall
    • an epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar wall
    • capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement membrane
    • capillary endothelium (capillary wall)
57
Q

What is the function of the smooth muscle?

A
  • enables control of the diameter of the airways in relation to rate of gas exchange required
    • slightly narrower (slight bronchoconstriction) when tidal breathing
    • Wider (bronchodilation) during exercise.
58
Q

Describe the process of inhalation

A

When you breathe in, or inhale, your diaphragm contracts and moves downward. Thisincreases the space in your thorax (chest cavity), and your lungs expand into it

59
Q

What is negative pressure breathing?

A
  • To move O2 from the atmosphere into our lungs, the pressure must be lower in the lungs
    • Pulling, rather than pushing air into our lungs
  • Achieved by expansion of the chest wall by muscle contraction
60
Q

Describe exhalation

A
  • no muscle contraction
  • passive process
  • Relaxation of diaphragm and rib cage reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity driving air OUT of the lungs
61
Q

Describe has exchange

A
  • Uptake of O2 from the atmosphere and discharge of CO2 back into the environment
  • A particular gas within a mixture of gases exerts a pressure
62
Q

What is partial pressure?

A
  • Allows us to predict which direction the gas moves
    -Gases always diffuse from a region of high partial pressure to a low partial pressure
63
Q

What three factors contribute to our lungs stretching and returning to its original shape? - factors affecting pulmonary ventilation

A

compliance → the extent to which the lungs can expand

elastic recoil → the rebound of the lungs after having been stretched by inhalation

surface tension → the tension that results from the forces acting on the liquid surfaces of the alveoli

64
Q

What is alveolar surface tension?

A
  • The alveoli are lined by water molecules
  • O2 must dissolve in water before it can move across the respiratory membrane
    • Too much water increases surface tension and increases diffusion distance
      • Tendency for lungs to collapse
      • Impaired gas exchange
65
Q

What does the body do to counteract alveolar surface tension?

A
  • Counteract this by producing pulmonary surfactant
    • produced by type II alveolar cells —> complex mixture of specific lipids, proteins and carbohydrates
    • reduce the surface tension between water molecules lining the lung surfaces, to improve lung compliance.
66
Q

Describe has exchange at the alveoli

A
  • Human lungs contain millions of alveoli, creating a huge surface area
    • This allows O2 to rapidly diffuse across the membrane into the surrounding capillaries for dispersal around the body
    • Gases will move from an area where its partial pressure is higher to an area where its partial pressure is lower
67
Q

Define expiratory reserve capacity (ERV)

A

th maximum volume of air that can be voluntarily exhaled

68
Q

Define functional residual capacity (FRV)

A

volume left in the lungs at the end of a normal breath -> not part of the subdivisions

69
Q

Define inspiratory capacity (IRC)

A

the maximum volume that can be inhaled

70
Q

Define inspiratory reserve capacity (IRC)

A

the maximum volume that can be inhaled above the tidal volume

71
Q

Define tidal volume (Vt)

A

the normal to-and from respiratory exchange of 500 cc

72
Q

define total lung capacity (TLC)

A

the entire volume of the lung, circa 5L

73
Q

Define vital capacity (VC)

A

the maximum volume that can be inhaled and exhaled, after a full inspiration, which added to the residual volume, is the total lung capcaity

74
Q

What is the formula to calculate pulmonary ventilation

A

tidal volume x respiratory rate

75
Q

What is the formula to calculate alveolar ventilation

A

(tidal volume - dead space volume) x respiratory rate

76
Q

Describe atmoshperic pressure during ventilation

A
  1. At rest, diaphragm relaxed = alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure = no air flow
  2. During inhaltion, diaphragm contracts and chest cavity expands = alveolar pressure drops below atmospheric pressure = air flows into the lungs = lung volume expands
  3. During exhalation, diaphragm realxes, the chest and lungs recoil and the chest cavity contracts = alveolar pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure = air flows out of the lungs = lung volume contracts
77
Q

Describethe relationship between oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood

A

O2 is considerably less soluble than CO2
- CO2 can form carbonic acid whereas O2 has no ability
Therefore most O2 is carried attached to haemoglobin

Oxygen carried both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to haemoglobin
- 98% transported this way
- measures as SpO2 (peripheral monitor) or SaO2 (arterial gas analysis)
- Remaining 2% dissolved in the plasma
- measured as PaO2

Carbon dioxide is transported by 3 different mechanisms
- 7% dissolved in plasma
- Remaining 93% within red blood cells, but via two separate mechanisms
- 23% bound to haemoglobin
- 70% converted to bicarbonate

78
Q

Describe blood supply to the lungs

A
  • blood enters the lungs via the pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) and the bronchial arteries (systemic circulation)
  • blood exists via the pulmonary veins and the bronchial veins
  • ventilation-perfusion coupling
    • ventilation is the movement of gas during breathing
    • perfusion is the process of pulmonary blood circulation which delivers O2 to the body tissues
    • vasoconstriction is a response to hypoxia → diverts blood from poorly ventilated areas to well ventilated areas
79
Q

Describe O2 tranposrt by haemoglobin

A

Each haemoglobin molecule can carry 4 molecules of O2
- Depending on how much O2 is bound will determine the blood’s saturation
- If all binding sites are occupied, the blood is 100% saturated
- At normal PO2 (partial pressure of oxygen) levels, haemoglobin is 98% saturated!

As the PO2 decreases, haemoglobin saturation will eventually fall rapidly
- at a PO2 of 40 mmHg, haemoglobin is 75% saturated.
- at a PO2 of 25 mmHg, haemoglobin is 50% saturated. This level is referred to as P50, where 50% of heme groups of each haemoglobin have a molecule of oxygen bound.

80
Q

What factors affecting the affinity of Hb for O2?

A

PO2
pH
temperature
BPG (bishphosphoglycerate)
type of hb

81
Q

What activities and conditions tha may increase ventilation rate?

A
  • Exercise, stress
  • Any situation that causes metabolic acidosis (diabetic ketoacidosis, alcoholism, starvation etc.)
  • In all cases of metabolic acidosis, ventilation rate increases to reduce blood levels of CO2
    • CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-
  • Extreme hyperventilation can lower CO2 levels enough to remove the drive to breath (then pass out from lack of oxygen).
82
Q

Why does ventilation rate change?

A
  • due to changes in oxygen demand and/or carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
  • accumulation of CO2 in the blood stimulates breathing
    • Chemoreceptors in the brain stem, carotid arteries and aortic arch detect elevated levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulate the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata (hypercapnoeic respiratory drive).
83
Q

What controls ventilation?

A

cortical influences
- allow conscious control of ventilation

chemoreceptors
- central and peripheral chemoreceptors monitor levels of O2 and CO2 -> provide input to the respiratory centre

hyercapina
- a slight increase in PCO2 and H+ -> stimulate central chemoreceptors

hypoxia
- oxygen deficiency at the tissue level -> casued by a low P02 in arterial blood due to high altitude, airway obstruction or fluid in the lungs

84
Q

What can affect the ventulatory drive?

A
  • blood levels of CO2
  • narcotics
  • brain damage
  • elevated ICP (intracranial pressure)
  • a decrease in metabolic rates
85
Q

What occurs during maximal breathing?

A
  • decreased CO2 levels
  • hyperventilation = reduced CO2 -> removes the stimulus to breath for a longer perio dof time
86
Q

Describe the relationship b/w excerise and the repsiratory system

A

as cardiac output rises, the blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary perfusion) increases -> the O2 diffusing capacity increases -> greater surface area available for Os diffusion

87
Q

Define obsrtuctive and restrictive lung disease

A

Obstructive lung disease → difficulty breathing out

Restrictive lung disease → difficulty breathing in

88
Q

Describe involuntary responses

A

sneezing
- receptors in nose send signal to brain to close off mouth
- forces air out pf lungs through nose to expel irritants

coughing
- receptors in respiratory tract send signal to brain to close off glottis and vocal cords
- builds pressure in lungs where it is forces out when muscles contract

hiccups
- trigger leads to involuntary contraction of the diaphragm
- closes off vocal cords breifly, causing air to “bounce” off them, creating the hic sound

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