Quick Review

Question 1

Counseling Field Highlights by Decade

Answer 1

1950s - counseling, not testing, became the primary guidance function.

1960s - rise to variety of competing psychotherapies.

1970s - ushered in crisis hotlines, biofeedback, and behavior modifications.

1980s - Application of Human Growth & Development; counseling became a profession with licensing and professional affiliations.

1990s - increased literature on psychiatric and counseling research & a greater understanding

Question 2

G. Stanley Hall

Answer 2

Founder of psychology in the US & first president of the American Psychological Association.

Question 3

Behaviorism Theorists & Theory Highlights

Answer 3

John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe, B.F. Skinner

Mind as a blank slate and behavior is learned over time

Question 4

Erik Erickson

Answer 4

1963 work “Children & Society”

Eight Psychosocial Stages:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth - 1.5 yrs)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1.5 - 3yrs)
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 6 yrs)
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 11yrs)
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 18yrs)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 - 35yrs)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (35 - 60yrs)
8. Integrity vs. Despair (60+yrs)

Question 5

Jean Piaget

Answer 5

Sensorimotor (Birth - 2yrs) 
- hallmark is mastering object permanence
Preoperational (2 - 7yrs)
- hallmark is mastering centration
Concrete Operations (7 - 12yrs)
- hallmark is mastering conservation
Formal Operations (12 - 16yrs)
- hallmark is mastering abstract scientific thinking

Question 6

Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 6

Three Levels of Moral Development:
1. Preconventional Level - behavior governed by consequences

2. Conventional Level - desire to conform to socially acceptable rules
3. Postconventional Level - self-accepted moral principles guide behavior

Question 7

Carol Gilligan

Answer 7

Built off of Kohlberg’s model; 1982 book “In a Different Voice” - focused her model on female moral development

Question 8

Daniel Levinson

Answer 8

1978 classic book “The Seasons of a Man”

Four eras include:

1. Childhood & Adolescence
2. Early Adulthood
3. Middle Adulthood
4. Late Adulthood

Question 9

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 9

(1896 - 1934)
Proposed that cognitive development is not result of innate factors, but is produced by activities that take place in culture.

Zone of proximal development (ZDP) - difference in child’s ability to solve problems on how & capacity to solve them with help from others.

Question 10

Sigmund Freud

Answer 10

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic

Developmental Stages:

1. Oral (Birth - 1yr)
2. Anal (1 - 3yrs)
3. Phallic (Oedipal/Electra Complex; 3 - 7yrs)
4. Latency (5 - 12yrs)
5. Genital (Adolescence & Adulthood)

Child or adult may experience a regression or fixation of stages.

Key Elements: free association, dreams and wish fulfillment, unconscious material (repression is most important), ego defense mechanisms, transference, abreaction and catharsis, id/ego/superego, and eros/thanatos instincts.

Question 11

William Perry

Answer 11

Three Stage Theory of Intellectual & Ethical Development:

1. Dualism - student view truth as right or wrong
2. Relativism - notion that a perfect answer does not exist - desire to know various opinions
3. Commitment to Relativism - willing to change own opinion based on novel facts and new POV

Question 12

James W. Fowler

Answer 12

Drew on the work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson

Prestage plus Six-Stage Theory of Faith & Spiritual Development:

Stage 0: Undifferentiated (primal) faith (Birth - 4yrs)
Stage 1: Intuitive-Projective Faith (2 - 7yrs)
Stage 2: Mythic-Literal Faith (childhood and beyond)
Stage 3: Synthetic-Conventional Faith (adolescence and beyond)
Stage 4: Individuative-Reflective Faith (young adulthood and beyond)
Stage 5: Conjuctive Faith (mid-30s and beyond) - openness to other POVs, paradox, and appreciation of symbols and metaphors
Stage 6: Universalizing Faith (midlife and beyond) - few reach this stage of enlightenment

Question 13

Diana Baumrind

Answer 13

Parenting Styles:

• Authoritative*
• Authoritarian
• Permissive/Passive Indulgent

Question 14

Emic vs. Etic

Answer 14

Emic: help client understand his/her own culture
Etic: focus on similarities in people/treat people as same

Question 15

Autoplastic vs. Alloplastic

Answer 15

Autoplastic: help client cope with his/her environment
Alloplastic: try to change the environment

Question 16

Low Context vs. High Context Communication

Answer 16

Low context: explicit verbal explanations

High context: implicit nonverbal communication & respect for tradition and past

Question 17

Leon Festinger

Answer 17

Social Comparison Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Question 18

Stanley Schachter

Answer 18

Believed that “misery loves company” or “miserable company”

Question 19

Atkinson, Morten, Sue

Answer 19

Five Stage Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID)

1. Conformity
2. Dissonance
3. Resistance and Immersion
4. Introspection
5. Synergetic Articulation and Awareness

Question 20

Phillip Zimbardo

Answer 20

1971 Stanford Prison Experiment

a situation can control behavior as well as assigned roles

Question 21

Muzafer Sherif

Answer 21

Robbers’ Cave Experiment

two opposing groups of boys end up working together as they attempt to solve some problem (a superordinate goal)

Question 22

Solomon Asch / Asch Situation

Answer 22

1950’s - studies re: conformity based on length of line

in a social or group situation, people will sell out and agree with opinions of others even if they know they are wrong

Question 23

John Darley & Bibb Latane

Answer 23

1964 - Bystander Effect/Apathy

the greater the number of people in a group, the less likely they are to assist a person in need

Question 24

Stanley Milgram

Answer 24

1963 - Obedience to authority experiment

electrical shock experiment - study could explain the Holocaust

Question 25

Psychoanalytic Theorists & Theory Highlights

Answer 25

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Harry Stack Sullivan, Heinz Hartmann, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Arthur Chickering, Mahler Believe that biological forces drive development and individual strives to control these drives. Personality characteristics appear in childhood and are stable over time.

Question 26

Existential & Humanistic Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 26

Abraham Maslow | Carl Rogers

Question 27

Cognitive Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 27

``` Jean Piaget David Elkind Lawrence Kohlberg Carol Gillian Jane Loevinger William G. Perry Robert Kegan Robert Havighurst ```

Question 28

Information Processing Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 28

``` Case Flavell Seigler Meltzoff Sternberg ```

Question 29

Behavioral & Social Learning Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 29

Classic Conditioning/Respondent Conditioning: - Ivan Pavlov - John Watson - Clark Hull - Joseph Wolpe Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Learning: - Edward Thorndike - BF Skinner Vicarious Conditioning - Albert Bandura - George Kelly - Edwin R. Guthrie

Question 30

Trait Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 30

Henry Murray Gordon Allport Raymond Cattell

Question 31

Ethological, Biological & Physical Theorists of Human Growth & Development

Answer 31

``` HF Harlow Renee Spitz Konrad Lorenz John Bowlby Mary Ainsworth Arnold Gesell Stella Thomas & Alexander Chess Gibson's Visual CLiff Jerome Bruner William Schelcion ```

Question 32

Carl Jung

Answer 32

Analytic Psychology - Psychodynamic approach Broke away from Freud in 1914 due to belief that Freud overemphasized role of sexuality. Key Elements: personal unconscious and collective unconscious, archetypes (such as persona, animus, anima, androgynous, etc.), the self (symbolized as a mandala), extroversion/introversion typologies, and individuation. Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has roots in Jung's work.

Question 33

Alfred Adler

Answer 33

Individual Psychology - Psychodynamic approach Broke away from Freud to create his own theory. Focuses on the fact that behavior is one's unconscious attempt to compensate for feelings of inferiority - construct a lifestyle which is chosen. Key Elements: "will to power" to generate feelings of superiority, principle of fictional finalism/behavior is motivated by future opportunities rather than past, birth order/family constellation *A teleological theory - influenced by future goals rather than one's past.