Questions Flashcards
Bordeaux climate
Moderate maritime
Haute-Medoc communes
Saint-Estephe
Pauillac
Saint-Julien
Margaux
Right bank Bordeaux appellations
Saint-Emilion
Pomerol
Cotes de Bordeaux appellations
Blaye
Cadillac
Castilion
Francs
Entre-Deux-Mers
In Bordeaux
Only white wines - tend to be Sauv Blanc unoaked
Bergerac
Appellation in the Dordogne
Red and whites similar to Bordeaux
Monbazillac
Appellation in the Dordogne
Botrytised sweet wines from Semilion and Sauv Blanc
Cahors
Malbec
In SW France
Cotes de Gascogne
SE Bordeaux
Large producer of IGP wines
Ugni Blanc
Ugni Blanc
Dry, light body white wine with green apple aromas
In Cotes de Gascogne in SW France
Madiran
Tannat in SW France
Jurancon
In SW France
Petit Manseng: Complex sweet wine with high acid
Petit Manseng
Complex sweet wine with high acid in Jurancon (SW France)
grapes remain free of botrytis and undergo passerillage
Pronounced apricot and grapefruit, sometimes spicy notes from new oak
Burgundy Climate
Cool continental to moderate continental
Chablis
Chardonnay from Northern Burgundy
Major problem is frost - use heaters and sprinklers
Basic is grown on north-facing hills and flat land
Lesser vineyards = Petit Chablis
Premier and Grand Cru grown on south-facing hillsides
Côte de Nuits villages
Gevry-Chambertin
Vougeot
Vosne-Romanee
Nuits-St-George
Cote de Beaune villages
Aloxe-Corton Beaune Pommard Volnay Meursault Puligny-Montrachet Chassagne-Montrachet
Cote Chalonnaise climate and appellations
Higher altitude so harvest is later, ripening less reliable than Cote d’Or.
Hillside aspect is less towards east, so lighter and later maturing than Cote d’Or.
Rully
Mercurey
Givry
Montagny
Rully
In Cote Chalonnaise
Produces more white than red
Produces sparkling
Mercurey
In Cote Chalonnaise
Red wines have highest reputation
Givry
In Cote Chalonnaise
Smallest appellation, reds highly admired
Montagny
In Cote Chalonnaise
Only white wines
Alsace mountain range
Vosges
Noble varieties
Riesling
Gewurztraminer
Pinot Gris
Muscat
Late Harvest Alsace
VT (Vendanges Tardives)
One of Noble varietals
Best undergo passerillage, may have noble rot
Noble rot Alsace
SGN (Selection de Grains Nobles)
Sugar ripeness levels higher than those for VT
Passerillage
Drying grapes on the vine. Reach full sugar ripeness and begin to dehydrate and turn to raisins, increasing sugar concentration.
Need warm, dry autumns or else gray rot
Airen
Most widely planted grape variety in Spain (white)
Majority planted in La Mancha (central spain - can cope with heat and drought)
Llicorella
best soils in Priorat
layers of red slate with small particles of mica that sparkle in the sun
help ripening by reflecting and conserving heat
retail water throughout growing season
Pinotage
Crossing of Pinot Noir x Cinsault
South Africa sizes of production areas
- Geographical Unit (Western Cape)
- Regions (Coastal Region, Breede River Valley, Cape South Coast)
- Districts
- Wards
South Africa - Coastal Region districts
- Stellenbosch
- Paarl
- Cape Peninsula (where Constantia ward is)
- Swartland
- Darling
- Tygerberg (where Durbanville ward is)
South Africa - Cape South Coast region districts
- Walker Bay (where Hemel-en-Aarde wards are)
- Elgin
- Cape Agulhas (where Elim ward is)
Swartland
district in Coastal Region of South Africa
known for old vine Chenin Blanc and high-quality Syrah, both of which are dry-farmed which lower yields and increase concentration
South Africa - Breede River Valley region districts
- Worcester
2. Robertson
Benguela Current
In South Africa, cold current that flows up from Antarctic running past the tip and up the west coast of Africa, cooling coastal areas
Cape Doctor
In South Africa, regular strong south-easterly summer winds - bring air cooled by the ocean further inland reducing temperatures
South Africa white varietals
- Chenin Blanc
- Sauvignon Blanc
- Chardonnay
South Africa red varietals
- Cabernet Sauvignon
- Merlot
- Syrah
- Pinot Noir
- Pinotage
South Africa’s GI system
Wine of Origin Scheme (W.O.)
Albariza
Soil in Jerez, Spain.
Very high chalk content
Provides good drainage but vitally its depth and excellent water holding capacity mean it can store enough water to sustain vines in hot dry summers
Moisture retention enhanced during summer when soil forms hard crust that limits evaporation
Jerez grape varietals
- Palomino
- Pedro Ximenez (PX)
- Muscat of Alexandria
Brut Nature sugar levels in sparkling wine
0-3 g/L residual sugar (driest)
Brut sugar levels in sparkling wine
0-12 g/L residual sugar (more sugar allowed than Brut Natural)
Demi-Sec sugar levels in sparkling wine
32-50g/L residual sugar (sweetest)
Port varietals
- Touriga Franca
- Tinta Roriz
- Tinta Barroca
- Touriaga Nacional
- Tinto Cao
Port color and tannin extraction techniques
- Foot treading
- Autovinifiers
- Piston plungers and robotic lagares
Spanish red Joven aging requirements
0 months total ageing, 0 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish white Joven aging requirements
0 months total ageing, 0 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish red Crianza aging requirements
24 months total ageing, 6 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish white Crianza aging requirements
18 months total ageing, 6 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish red Reserva aging requirements
36 months total ageing, 12 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish white Reserva aging requirements
24 months total ageing, 6 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish red Gran Reserva aging requirements
60 months total ageing, 18 months min time spent in barrel
Spanish white Gran Reserva aging requirements
48 months total ageing, 6 months min time spent in barrel
Passito method
grapes picked early when high in acid and dried indoors, concentrating aromas and flavors
Dry and warm conditions required
Must remove rotten grapes to avoid rot from spreading
Used in Veneto for Amarone della Valpolicella and Recioto Della Valpollicella
Can have raisin quality
Ripasso method
Uses grape skins from fermenting Amarone della Valpolicella.
Before fermentation finishes, Amarone drained off the skins.
The skins remain unpressed and are added to a vat of Valpolicella that has finished fermentation.
Yeast, which are also transferred, ferment remaining sugar on Amarone skins.
Grape skins give more color, flavor, and tannins
Piemonte regions
- Barolo
- Barbaresco
- Asti and Alba
- Gavi
Naoussa PDO
Xinomavro - often compared to Nebbiolo.
High tannin and acid, medium color that fades to tawny, lack fresh fruit aromas even in youth
Nemea PDO
Agiorgitiko red wines
lower slopes are hotter - overly jammy and early drinking
higher slopes - higher acid and less fine tannins
deep ruby color, high levels of smooth tannins, low-med acidity
sweet spice and red fruit flavors
Santorini PDO
Assyrtiko - white wines with highest reputation.
Red and white wines allowed, can be dry or sweet (Vinsanto)
Austria white wines
- Gruner Veltliner
- Welshriesling
- Riesling
Zweigelt
Austria - Crossing of Blaufrankisch x St Laurent
Deeply colored reds with soft tannins
Blaufrankisch
Most highly regarded Austrian black variety
Medium tannin, high acidity, peppery, sour cherry flavor
St Laurent
Austrian specialty that gives wines similar character to Pinot Noir
Austrian federal states for PDO wine
- Nierderosterreich (Lower Austria)
- Burgenland
- Steiermark (Styia)
- Wien (Vienna)
Wachau
Sub-region of Nierderosterreich in Austria
High quality dry wines made from Gruner Veltliner or Riesling
Steep, terraced south facing vineyards next to Danube maximize exposure
Weinviertel DAC
Austria’s largest vine-growing area
Wines can only be made from Gruner Veltliner
Two levels to DAC:
1) Klassik - light fresh fruity with no oak
2) Reserve - high min alcohol and oak is allowed
Mosel villages
1) Piesport
2) Bernkastel
3) Wehlen
Nahe villages
1) Schlossbockelheim
2) Bad Kreuznach
Rheingau villages
1) Johannisberg
2) Rudesheim
Rheinhessen village
Nierstein
Pfalz villages
1) Forst
2) Deidesheim
Northern Rhone regions
1) Cote Rotie
2) Condrieu
3) Saint-Joseph
4) Hermitage
5) Crozes-Hermitage
6) Cornas
Cote Rotie
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Syrah, can have up to 20% Viognier
“Roasted Slope”
Deeply colored, full bodied, spicy, aromatic floral freshness and textural elegance
Condrieu
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Viognier only - best is from low-yielding old vines on steep, exposed, terraced vineyards
Chateau-Grillet is single property appellation
Saint-Joseph
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Syrah is main red
Marsanne and Roussanne also used for white production
Hermitage
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Syrah, can have up to 15% Roussanne and Marsanne
Steep, south-facing slope
Fullest-bodied of Northern Rhone
Crozes-Hermitage
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Syrah, can have up to 15% Roussanne and Marsanne
North of Hermitage are on slopes: more concentrated, complex, and tannic
South of Hermitage are on flat plain: lighter, higher yield wines
Marsanne
Adds richness and weight
Northern Rhone - blended with Syrah
Specialty in Goulburn Valley in Victoria, Australia
Roussanne
Offers acidity and perfumed fruit characteristic
Cornas
cru appellation in Northern Rhone
Must be 100% Syrah
warmest in Northern Rhone: sun-baked, south-facing slopes
Loire Valley Sauvignon Blanc appelations
1) Sancerre
2) Pouilly-Fume
3) Menetou-Salon
4) Touraine
Vouvray
Loire Valley Chenin Blanc
Makes both still and sparkling, dry to sweet
Cool climate and clay soil -> light to medium in body, with fresh and fruit notes
Saumur
Loire Valley Chenin Blanc. Renowned source for sparkling Chenin Blanc made by traditional method
Anjou
Loire Valley Chenin Blanc. Known for dry wines
Savennieres
Loire Valley full-bodied Chenin Blanc in dry style
Warm, dry climate and good air circulation prevents noble rot, but late harvest produces full-body, complex dry wines
Coteaux du Layon
Loire Valley Chenin Blanc Sweet wines - noble rot develops well in vally of River Layon south of Loire. Two most favoured sites: 1) Quarts de Chaume 2) Bonnezeaux
Melon Blanc
Nantais region in Loire Valley
Muscadet Sevre et Maine appellation
Dry with medium alcohol (max 12% abv)
High acid, light body and subtle green fruit
Sur Lie is specialty - bottled in spring following vintage, having spent winter on the lees. Gives wine richer texture.
Regions for Cabernet Franc in Loire Valley
1) Chinon
2) Bourgueil
3) Saumur-Champigny
Rose de Loire
Can be produced in both Anjou-Saumur and Touraine
Cabernet d’Anjou
Blend of Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon
Medium sweet
Highest quality
Rose d’Anjou
Made with Grolleau blended with Cabernet Franc and other local varietals
Less sweet than Cabernet d’Anjou
Grolleau
High yielding black grape in Loire Valley used to make rose (Rose d’Anjou)
Beaujolais Nouveau
Can’t be released until third Thursday in November, Cannot be sold after the following Aug 31
Cannot be from the 10 crus
Beaujolais
light in body and tannin
red berry fruit
carbonic maceration - kirsch, banana, and cinnamon
Beaujolais crus
1) Brouilly
2) Morgon
3) Fleurie
4) Moulin-A-Vent
Most structured Beaujolais crus
Moulin-a-Vent and Morgon
Lighter, perfumed Beaujolais crus
Brouilly and Fleurie
Beaujolais soils
granite soils with low-level of nutrients that keep yields of Gamay lower and therefore more concentrated
Southern Rhône crus
Chateauneuf-du-pape Tavel Lirac Gigondas Vacqueyras
Bandol
In the Cote de Provence, east of Marseille , south-facing terraced slopes
Premium reds based on Mourvedre
Require bottle age before showing bramble, meat, and liquorice-spice
Mistral
Cold north winds
Northern Rhône - use individual stakes or tee-pee of stakes to protect
Southern Rhône - plant windbreaks. Grenache planted close to ground, Syrah has trellising systems
Rias Baixas
NW Spain on Atlantic coast
Moderate damp climate: mildew and rot common -> train vines on pergolas or trellising systems
Albariño
Terra Rosa
Red soil over limestone subsoil in Coonawarra
Great Southern region
In Australia, includes subregions of Mount Barker and Frankland River. Warm maritime climate with high rainfall, but mostly in winter
Tasmania climate
Cool maritime
Hunter Valley climate
hot, humid climate
cloud cover and ocean breezes helps moderate
canopy management needed to prevent rot
McLaren Vale
On the coast south of Adelaide
Afternoon breezes from ocean temper warm climate
Shiraz, CS, Merlot, Grenache (Shiraz and Grenache can be old vine)
Coonawarra
Maritime climate moderated by cold currents from the Antarctic and cloud cover in summer
Red terra rossa soil over limestone subsoil
CS with cassis, eucalyptus, and menthol aromas
Barossa Valley
In South Australia warm, dry climate old bush vines for Shiraz full-bodied, soft tannins, ripe black fruit, American oak Semillon made in fresh, unoaked style
Eden Valley
In South Australia
In hills to east of Barossa Valley, cool to moderate climate that varies with altitude
Known for Riesling with intense lime and grapefruit aromas and steely character
Also Shiraz, Chardonnay, and CS
Clare Valley
In South Austalia
Warm climate, tempered by cool afternoon breezes and
nights are cold. Most vineyards at altitude
Known for Riesling - dry, intense citrus and lime, high acid
Also produces Shiraz and CS
Adelaide Hills
In South Australia
Moderate climate at altitude
Rainfall in winter and soils have limited water-holding capacity so irrigation often necessary during growing season
Sauv Blanc and Chardonnays with high acid and pronounced citrus and peach
Pinor Noir used in still red and sparkling
Yarra Valley
In Victoria Australia
Cool to moderate maritime climate
Range of altitudes and aspects
Pinot Noir is specialty
Mornington Peninsula
In Victoria Australia
Cool to moderate maritime climate
Can have cool, wet, windy weather at flowering and harvest
Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are specialties
Geelong
In Victoria Australia
Similar climate to Mornington Penninsula
Chardonnay is renowned, pinot noir and shiraz also made
Heathcote
In Victoria Australia
Moderate climate. Inland - cooling influences come from altitude (not ocean)
Goulburn Valley
In Victoria Australia
Warm region - heat mitigated by lakes and creeks (Goulburn River)
Marsanne is specialy
Australian regions for high volume wines
1) Riverland (South Australia)
2) Murray-Darling (Victoria)
3) Riverina (New South Wales)
Super Zone is South Eastern Australia Zone
Riverina
Specializes in production of botyritised wines from Semillon. Autumn morning mists and fogs favor development of noble rot
Cool climate regions for Australian Chardonnay
1) Yarra Valley
2) Adelaide Hills
3) Mornington Peninsula
4) Tasmania
Australian Pinot Noir regions
1) Yarra Valley
2) Mornington Peninsula
3) Tasmania
best examples are from cool to moderate sites
New Zealand North Island regions
1) Auckland
2) Gisborne
3) Hawke’s Bay (Gimblett Gravels)
4) Wairarapa (Martinborough)
New Zealand South Island regions
1) Marlborough
2) Nelson
3) Canterbury
4) Central Otogo
Auckland climate
Warm and wettest part of NZ - fungal disease is issue
Gimblett Gravels
In Hawke’s Bay
Well-drained, heat-absorbing gravel soil on valley floor
high reputation for black varietals (Merlot, CS, and Syrah)
Marlborough
South Island, NZ
1) Wairau Valley - long sunny days
2) Awatere Valley - drier, cooler, windier. Sauv Blancs have more acidity, pronounced herbaceous character, lack tropical fruit flavors
Central Otago
- Unlike rest of NZ, has contental climate and frost damage is risk in spring and fall
- Warm summers
- Diurnal range in growing season is large
- intensity of sunlight is high = high alcohol levels
Chile climate
Warm Mediterranean climate
Humboldt Current
Flows up from Antarctic along Chilean coast and prevailing winds blow cool air inland along the river valleys
Chile cooling influences
1) Humboldt Current
2) Effect caused by cold air that descends from mountains overnight and cause large diurnal temperature range. Between the 2 mountain ranges, the climate is more sheltered and large expanses of flat land are easier to cultivate
Coquimbo Region
Borders Atacama Desert - most northern Chile wine region
1) Elqui Valley
2) Limari Valley
3) Choapa Valley
Cooling influences from sea breezes and mountain air
Lack of water - irrigation is needed
Elqui Valley
In Coquimbo Region (north) in Chile
Reputation for Sauv Blanc and Syrah
Limari Valley
In Coquimbo Region (north) in Chile
Reputation for Chardonnay
Aconcagua sub-regions
1) Aconcagua Valley
2) Casablanca Valley
3) San Antonio Valley
Aconcagua Valley
Chile
Steep-sided narrow valley, cooling influences from ocean and Andes Mountains
Plantings moving from fertile valley floor (hot) to slopes or coast
Casablanca Valley
Sub-region of Aconcagua Region in Chile
Lies between coastal mountains and Pacific Ocean
cooler sites due to morning fogs and afternoon winds - white varieties dominate
Pinot Noir is most planted black variety
Syrah is successful in warmer sites in east
San Antonio Valley
Sub-region of Aconcagua Region in Chile
Lies between coastal mountains and Pacific Ocean cooler sites due to morning fogs and afternoon winds - white varieties dominate
Sauv Blanc has greatest reputation in Leyda Valley zone
Chardonnay can also be premium
Pinot Noir is most planted black variety
Leyda Valley
Zone within San Antonio Valley in Chile
Known for Sauv Blanc
Central Valley Region in Chile
Warm flat region for bulk wine (Merlot, Chardonnay)
1) Maipo Valley
2) Rapel Valley (Cachapoal Valley and Colchagua Valley)
3) Curico Valley
4) Maule Valley
Maipo Valley
Sub-region of Central Valley Chile
Surrounded by mountains - very little coastal influence
premium sites in Andean foothills which provide cooling air
Reputation for Cab Sauv (minty)
Cachapoal Valley
Zone within Rapel Valley sub-region in Chile
Warm area cut off from ocean breeze
Carmenere ripens on valley floor
Cab Sauv and Syrah perform well on cooler eastern end of valley
Colchagua Valley
Zone within Rapel Valley sub-region in Chile
Central part of valley is warm and open to some ocean influence
Full-bodied reds (Cab Sauv, Syrah, Carmenere)
Maule Valley and Curico Valley
Sub-regions of Central Valley Chile
Warmth and fertile soils = inexpensive blended red and white wines
Maule Valley cooler than Curico Valley so higher acid
Carginan in western hills = full-bodied, low yielding bush vines
Southern Region in Chile
1) Itata Valley
2) Bio Bio Valley (showing promise for Chard and Pinot)
3) Malleco Valley (Chardonnay and Pinot Noir)
Plantings dominated by Pais and Muscat of Alexandria
Cooler and wetter the further south
Chile GI scheme
DOs: Denominaciones de Origen
1) Coquimbo
2) Aconcagua
3) Central Valley
4) Southern Region
New Chilean classification system
New classification categorizes vineyards based on distance from coast (vs. their latitude)
1) Costa (coastal)
2) Entre Cordilleras (between mountain ranges)
3) Andes (mountain areas)
Producer can use these terms in addition to DO
Canada Appellation system
VQA (Vintners Quality Alliance)
1) Ontario
2) British Columbia
Each province is broken down into smaller DVAs (Designated Viticultural Areas), which are divided into Regional Appellations and then sub-appellations
Canada wine regions
1) Niagara Peninsula (Ontario)
2) Okanagan Valley (British Columbia)
Okanagan Valley
In British Columbia Canada
Rain shadow between two mountain ranges = very low annual average rainfall
Long day lengths in growing seaon to help aid ripening
Large glacial lakes help moderate mperatures and extend growing season
Merlot, Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Icewine from Riesling or Vidal
Niagara Peninsula
In Ontario Canada
Lake Ontario extends growing season in autumn and delays budburst in spring to minimze frost. Air flow helps reduce fungal disease
Riesling
Vidal (Icewine)
Chardonnay
Pinot Noir, Cab Franc, Cab Sauv, Merlot
Portugal wine regions
1) Vinho Verde
2) Douro
3) Dao
4) Bairrada
5) Alentejo
6) Vinho Regional Alentejano
White wines from Vinho Verde
1) Loureiro
2) Arinto
3) Alvarinho (Albarino) - grown in subregion of Moncao e Melgaco
Vinho Verde climate
Moderate maritme climate (Atlantic Ocean)
high annual rainfall - need canopy management - move to spur-pruned VSP to create airflow in the humid environment and allow mechanisation
Dao
Portugal region: mountainous area, vines on gentle hills and slopes
cold, wet winters and warm, dry summers with large diunral temperature range
Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Jaen, Alfrocheiro.
Alfrocheiro
Red wine in Dao Portugal
Deep color with intense aromas of blackberry and strawberry
Bairrada
Portugal region: maritime climate - rainy winters and warm summers
Rain at harvest can be a problem for late ripening varieties
Baga is dominant black variety
Also make Cab Sauv, Merlot, and Syrah
White wines: Bical and Maria Gomes
Baga
Red from Bairrada Portugal
late ripening, small thick skinned berries giving wines that are deep in color and high tannin.
Alentejo
Portugal region
Warm growing season. Cooler, wetter north give more elegant wines than those in hotter, drier center and south which give rich wines
Red blends made from Aragones (Tempranillo) and Trincadeira.
Alicante Bouschet (high in color and tannin) used in blends
Trincadeira
Drought-tolerant grape with spicy red berry flavors and high tannin
Found in Alentejo Portugal
Umbria
Similar climate to Tuscany, but more continental without any influence from the Mediterranean
Known for white wine Orvieto DOC (blend of Grechetto, Trebbiano, and local grapes)
Sagrantino di Montefalco
Orvieto DOC
White blend from Umbria made from Grechetto, Trebbiano, and often a few other local grapes
Lazio
In hills south of Rome, cooled by altitude and nearby lakes
Frascati DOC is best known wine. Blends of Malvasia and Trebbiano.
Malvasia
White grape varietal used in Frascati DOC blend within Lazio Italy.
Adds floral, orange blossom aromas
Marche
Central Italy east of Apennines mountains
Most famous is Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC. Green apple, lemons, fennel, almonds. Honey and almonds with age.
Conero DOCG = blend of Montepulciano and Sangiovese
Abruzzo
Central Italy south of Marche
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC - high colour and tannin, medium acid, black plums and cherries.
Chianti Classico DOCG
At higher altitude than Chianti DOCG, slowing the ripening of Sangiovese = greater acidity and more herbal aromas
Must be aged for 12 months before released
Chianti Classico Riserva DOCG
Must be aged for 24 months, of which at least 3 months must be bottle ageing
Gran Selezione
Highest designation for Chianti Classico. Grapes must be sourced from single estate and aged for 6 months longer than Riserva (total of 30 months)
Southern Tuscany
Lower altitudes than in northern Tuscany and have warmer climate
Moderated by maritime breezes from south-west
Brunello di Montalcino DOCG and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG best known appellations
more intense and full-bodied than wines from Chianti
Brunello di Montalcino
Southern Tuscany
Must be made from entirely Sangiovese
5 years of minimum ageing, 2 in oak
Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG
Southern Tuscany
Can be blend of Sangiovese with other varieties and must be aged for minimum of 2 years
Sangiovese
high acid and tannin
late to ripen so needs warm climate
red cherry, plum, dried herbs, usually aged in oak to soften tannins and add spicy flavors
bottle age with meaty and gamey aromas
Southern Italy climate
Hot and dry inland, humid near the coast
many vineyards on slopes within Apennines, altitudes and sea breezes providing relief
Southern Italy Regions
1) Campania
2) Basilicata
3) Puglia
4) Sicily
Campania white wines
1) Fiano di Avellino DOCG
2) Greco di Tufo DOCG
Campania red wines
Aglianico
Best is from Taurasi DOCG
Basilicata
Extremely mountainous - extinct volcano
Aglianico del Vulture DOC
Puglia
Southern Italy region - hot climate
1) Negroamaro
2) Primitivo
Puglia IGT
Negroamarao
Grown in Puglia (Southern Italy)
Best come from Salice Salentino DOC
full-body, medium tannin and acid, high alcohol, baked red and black fruit
Sicily wines
1) IGT Terre di Sicilia / Terre Siciliane (high yields)
2) Sicilia DOC (lower yields)
Nero d’Avola is dominant black grape
Etna DOC
Sicily. Red blends of Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio
- high acid and high tannin, sour red cherry, cranberry and raspberry, dried herbs.
Southern France climate
Warm Mediterranean climate - biggest problem is drought
vineyards in foothills of mountains cooler than those on coastal plain
Picpoul
White varietal in Southern France.
Picpoul de Pinet is near coast in Languedoc AC - cooling breezes help retain high acidity.
Southern France Areas
1) Languedoc
2) Roussillon
3) Provence
Southern France red varietals
1) Grenache
2) Syrah
3) Carignan
4) Cinsault
5) Mourvedre
6) Merlot
7) Cabernet Sauvignon
Southern France white varietals
1) Chardonnay
2) Sauvignon Blanc
3) Viognier
4) Muscat
5) Grenache Blanc
6) Picpoul in Pinet
7) Mauzac in Limoux
8) Maccabeau in Roussilon
9) Rolle in Provence
10) Clairette in Languedoc and Provence
Why is it difficult to describe a typical wine from Languedoc and Roussillon?
1) most wines are blends so a lot of variation
2) many appellations cover significant geographical areas with different climatic and soil conditions dominating different zones
Cotes du Roussillon
Rugged and moutainous
Bright sun, low rainfall, strong winds produce concentrated wines
Best vineyards in north qualify for Cotes du Roussillon Villages
Fitou
In Languedoc, north of Cotes due Roussillon Villages
Split into 2 areas
1) Warm coastal strip: fuller-body wines
2) Cooler inland area at altitude: lighter wines
Corbieres
In Languedoc, warm sites near coast and at altitude cooled by tramontane
Boutenac is best subregion and has its own AC
Minervois
In Languedoc, lies on slopes of Massif Central
La Liviniere is best subregion and has its own AC
Provence
Hills provide protection from mistral and variety of site climates and soils
Rose is majority of production
Cotes de Provence is largest appellation
Spain Climate zones
1) N and NW = moderate maritime dominated by Atlantic weather systems. Rainfall and associated risks are high
2) East coast = warm Mediterranean climate. Moderated by sea or altitude
3) Meseta Central = hot continental climate. Freezing winters and hot summers with limited rain. Cool nights of high altitude sites can moderate
Spain climate risk mitigation
Low density, bush-trained vineyards maximize water available to each vine and shades fruit from excessive heat
Spanish red varietals
1) Tempranillo
2) Garnacha Tinta
3) Monastrell (Mourvedre)
4) Graciano
5) Carinena / Mazuelo
6) Mencia
Graciano
Black grape in Rioja blends to add concentrated black fruit, acidity, and tannins
Challenging to grow
Carinena
Carignan, also called Mazuelo in Rioja.
Gives high acid, tannin, and color
Mencia
Black local variety in Spain. Suited for moderate climates, giving wines with fresh fruit, medium to high acidity, hint of herbaceousness
Grown in Bierzo
Spanish white wines
1) Verdejo
2) Albarino
3) Airen
4) Viura
Verdejo
White Spanish grape highly susceptible to oxygen
light bodied, high acid, melon and peach
Similar to Sauv Blanc, may be blended with Sauv Blanc
Albarino
Grown in Rias Baixas
Thick-skinned so can resist fungal disease
High acid, citrus and stone fruit
Castilla y Leon
Most extensive region designated for Vino de la Tierra in Spain
North of Meseta Central
Rioja Alavesa
West of Logrono on north bank of Ebro in foothills of Cantabrian Mountains
Lightest Rioja wines and most finesse
Planted at altitude and moderated by Atlantic Ocean
Cantabrian Mountains shield from Atlantic weather
Rioja Alta
West of Logrono but south of Ebro.
Planted at altitude and moderated by Atlantic Ocean
Cantabrian Mountains shield from Atlantic weather
Rioja Baja
East of Logrono on south bank. Climate is less maritime, with hotter summers and more severe winters
Rainfall can be low so drought is issue
Garnacha grows best here
Navarra
Region in Upper Ebro (Spain)
Similar climate to Rioja, but cooler and wetter near mountains
Tempranillo blended with Rioja varietals or CS/Merlot
Garnacha for Rose
Small white wine production from Viura, Chardonnay, Sauv Blanc
Carinena and Calatayud
Region in Upper Ebro (Spain)
Warm continental climates and low rainfall
Garnacha is main variety
Penedes
Region in Catalunya (Spain)
Hot coastal plains have Mediterranean climate
In-land valleys are cooler but still warm
Into hills, at altitude, climate is moderate
Priorat
Region in Catalunya (Spain) vineyards within hills inland summers are long, hot, dry low annual rainfall Garnacha and Carinena Licorella soil Bush vines, steep slopes mean no mechanisation Low nutrients mean small yields = expensive wines
Ribera del Duero
Region in Duero Valley (Spain)
Ring of mountains cut off maritime influence: short, hot, dry summers and very cold winters
Very high altitude ensures cool nighttime temperatures: retain acidity and fresh fruit flavors
DO for red and rose wine only
Tempranillo is dominant
Toro
Region in Duero Valley (Spain)
Similar climate to Ribera del Duero
High daytime temperatures, sunny conditions and low-yielding bush vines produce full-body, intense fruit, high alcohol
Rueda
Region in Duero Valley (Spain) focused on white varietals
Continental climate with cool summer nights ideal for Verdejo
Sauv Blanc also produced
Blended whites must contain at least 50% Verdejo
Bierzo
Region in NW Spain
In mountains
Moderate climate benefits from cooling maritime influence
Mencia is key - high acid and red fruit. best wines from old vines on steep, stony slopes
Valencia
Region in The Levante (Spain)
source of value wines
Monastrell is most planted
Merseguera and Muscat of Alexandria are most planted whites (Moscatel de Valencia sweet fortified wine)
Jumilla and Yecla
Region in The Levante (Spain)
Hot, arid climate for Monastrell
La Mancha
Largest DO in Spain, in Meseta Central south of Madrid
Airen is most planted, but in decline
Tempranillo, CS, Merlot, Syrah, Chardonnay, Sauv Blanc
Valdepenas
Identical climate to La Mancha (Spain)
Built reputation for quality that exceeds La Mancha
Airen is most widely planted, Tempranillo for red
Northern Italy regions
1) Trentino-Alto Adige
2) Friuli-Venezia Giulia
3) Veneto
4) Piemonte
Alto Adige
Italy’s most northern wine region
moderate climate: short, dry summers and low rainfall during growing season
planted on terraces on SE and SW facing valley sides
Large diurnal shift due to altitudes
Pinot Grigio most notable, foolowed by Gewurtz, Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc.
Red: Schiava local variety, low-med tannins and raspberry/plum flavors
Trentino
Northern Italy wine region (directly south of Alto Adige, slightly warmer
Dry summers and low rainfall in growing season
Plantings on valley floor and on slopes
Slightly warmer due to southern latitude, vineyards at Lower altitudes and mountains that protect region from Cooling influence of Lake Garda
Whites: Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio
Reds: Merlot and Teroldego (deep color, med-high tannin, high acid, med-full body, black fruit).
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
NE Italy region
Moderate continental climate, cooled by air from climate
Some of the richest Pinot Grigio in Italy
Friulano (med-high acid, med body, aromas of pear, red apple, and herbs)
Wines from plain: Friuli Grave DOC (tend to be white)
Collio DOC and Colli Orientali DOC are in hills known for premium concentrated wine
Collio DOC / Colli Orientali DOC
Located in hills of Friuli-Venezia Giulia
known for premium, concentrated white wines
Colli Orientali noted for reds
Friulano
Native white Italian varietal in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Northern Italy)
med-high acidity, med body, aromas of pear, red applies, and herbs
Schiava
Native black Italian varietal in Alto Adige (Northern Italy) producing light fruit wines with low to medium tannins and flavors of raspberry and plum
Teroldego
Native Italian varietal planted in Trentino (Northern Italy)
Deep color, medium to high tannin, high acid, med-full body, black fruit
Soave
Veneto Italy region
1) Foothills to north have limestone and slay soils with volcanic rocks: naturally cool, and with altitudes, slows down ripening so full flavor ripeness and high acid and can be matured. Can be Soave Classico DOC
2) flat southern plain have sandy, alluvial soils that aid ripening so grapes are fruitier with med acid and meant to be drunk young
Garganega is key varietal
Valpolicella
Veneto Italy region
Foothills in north have limestone, clay, and volcanic soils which slow down ripening so more acidity. Can be Valpolicella Classico DOC.
Flatter south have gravel and sand soils which are warmer, so grapes are fruitier with less acid
Corvina
Simple, fruity, light tannins with red cherry flavors. Rarely oaked and meant to drink immediately.
Corvina
Main grape in Valpolicella (Veneto Italy)
Thin skin, moderate color, low-med tannins, high acid.
Cap Management Techniques
1) Punching down
2) Pumping over
3) Rack and Return
4) Rotary Fermenters
Med-Fully bodied oaked white wines serving temperature
Lightly chilled 10-13C (50-55F)
Light/Medium-bodied white wines serving temperature
Chilled 7-10C (45-50F)
Sweet wines serving temperature
Well chilled 6-8C (43-45F)
Sparkling wines serving temperature
Well chilled 6-10C (43-50F)
Light-bodied red wines serving temperature
Lightly chilled 13C (55F)
Medium/Full-Bodied red wines serving temperature
Room temperature 15-18C (59-64F)
Sweetness in food
- Increases perception of bitterness, astringency, acidity, and the warming effect of alcohol in the wine
- Decreases the perception of body, sweetness, and fruitiness in the wine
Umami in Food
- Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency, acidity, and the warming effect of alcohol in the wine
- Decreases the perception of body, sweetness, and fruitiness in the wine
Acidity in Food
- Increases the perception of body, sweetness, and fruitiness in the wine
- Decreases the perception of acidity in the wine
Salt in Food
- Increases the perception of body in the wine
* Decreases the perception of astringency, bitterness, and acidity in the wine
Bitterness in Food
Increases the perception of bitterness in the wine
High-risk foods
Sugar
Umami
Bitterness
Chilli heat
Methods of making sparkling wines
1) Traditional Method
2) Transfer Method
3) Tank Method
4) Asti Method
5) Carbonation
Styles of sparkling wine
1) Non-vintage
2) Vintage
3) Rose
4) Blanc de blancs
5) Blanc de Noirs
6) Prestige Cuvee
Rose winemaking methods
1) Direct Pressing (crushed and pressed in same way as white wine production. Extracts a little color but not too much tannin - produces most delicately colored rose)
2) Short Maceration - crushed and allowed to macerate to extract flavor and color. May or may not extend into start of fermentation. Free run juice will be drained off the skins and fermented at cool temperatures like a white wine
3) Small quantity of red wine added to a white wine. Not permitted in EU with exception of rose Champagne.
Sparkling wine traditional method process
1) Make base wine
2) Blending
3) Second alcohol fermentation
4) Yeast autolysis
5) Riddling
6) Disgorgement and corking
7) Bottle ageing
Why is blending important for sparkling wines?
1) Make sparkling wines in a house style, especially non-vintage, despite vintage variation
2) improve balance of wine (Chardonnay brings fruit, finesse, longentivity vs. Pinot Noir brings aromas, red fruit, and body)
3) Enhance complexity of wine
liqueur de tirage
mixture of wine, sugar, yeast, yeast nutrients, and clarifying agent added to blend of base wine to start 2nd alcoholic fermentation in production of sparking wines
Raises alcohol 1.2-1.3% abv and CO2 generated by yeast dissolves into wine creating bubbles
Riddling
Moving sparkling wine bottle very slow from horizontal to an inverted vertical position in order to dislodge yeast sediment so it gradually slides down side of bottle and collects in plastic cup insert in crown cap
pupitre
A-frame rack that sparkling bottles were placed in and hand twisted for riddling purposes
gyropalette
Machine consisting of a cage holding 500 bottles on a hydraulic arm which is regularly rotated and inclined to simulate riddling of sparkling wine bottles in a few days.
liqueur d’expedition
mixture of wine and sugar added after disgorgement of sparking wines
Amount of sugar used will determine the final level of sweetness in the wine and is known as the dosage - used to balance acidity and helps with flavor development. Brut Nature has no sugar added at this stage.
Transfer Method
Avoids riddling and disgorgement.Bottles are disgorged into sealed tank under pressure, wine in tank is filtered to remove yeast, liqueur d’expedition added, and wine rebottled.
May say “bottle-fermented” on label
Tank Method
Retain flavor of base wine - good for Muscat and Riesling, and for Prosecco.
First fermentation in temp controlled stainless tanks - no MLF or oak ageing.
Yeast, sugar, yeast nutrients, and clarifying agents added to the wine and second fermentation takes place in sealed tank
Wine is filtered to remove yeast lees before it is bottled under pressure. Most have no autolysis because no time on lees.
Asti Method
Sweet sparkling wines in Asti region of Piemonte
Only 1 alcoholic fermentation involved
Juice is chilled and stored until needed.
Warmed and fermentation takes place in pressurized tanks. CO2 allowed to escape initially, but tank sealed part-way through fermentation. Ferment continues alcohol reaches 7% abv, stopped early by chilling wine. Filtered under pressure to remove yeast.
Piemonte climate
moderate continental with long, cold winters and summers that can be subject to thunderstorms, hail, and fog.
Moderating influences from Po River in south and Lake Maggiore in north
Noted for foothills with different aspects and altitudes
Mountains to north provide rain shadow protecting from northern winds and rain
Barolo
Must be made entirely from Nebbiolo
grapes ripen slowly at altitudes developing perfumed aromas of sour cherry, herbs, and dried flowers
full body, high acid, and high tannin
Must be aged for 3 years before release, 18 of which are in oak.
Benefit from further bottle aging - truffles, tar, leather
Nebbiolo
Black grape with high levels of acidity and tannins but little color.
Grown in Barolo and Barbaresco
Barbaresco
Renowned for Nebbiolo.
South-facing slopes at lower altitudes and influence from local river: early ripening vs. Barolo so fruitier and less perfumed
Must be aged for 2 years before release, with 9 months in oak
Barbera
Late ripening grape, with medium to deep color, low to medium tannins and high acidity
Aromas of red cherries and plums, sometimes black pepper
Grown in Alba and Asti (Asti higher quality)
Dolcetto
Widely planted in Asti and Alba
Early ripening grape so can be planted in coolest sites
Best are from Dolcetto d’Alba
Dolcetto d’Alba
Produces finest wines - deep, often purple, color with medium to high tannins and medium acidity
black plus, red cherries, and dried herbs
Gavi
Grown in hills where altitude and sea breezes result in long, slow ripening of Cortese
Pale and light-bodied, high acid, citrus, green apples, and pears
Cortese
Grown in Gavi
high acid and floral character
What do vines need to grow?
1) Heat
2) Sunlight
3) Water
4) Climate and Weather
5) Soil
Factors affecting heat
1) Latitude
2) Altitude
3) Ocean currents
4) Fog
5) Soil
6) Aspect
7) Continentality
8) Diurnal Range
What temperature hazards does a winemaker face?
1) Winter (temps below -20C can damage/kill vine)
2) Spring Frosts
3) Growing Season: cold temps in growing season delay budburst, so not enough time to fully ripen in autumn, or hot temperatures in summer can slow or stop vine activity
What options does a winemaker have to mitigate spring frosts?
1) Heaters
2) Wind machines
3) Sprinklers
4) Thoughtful vineyard design
What natural factors affect sunlight a vine receives?
1) Latitude
2) Seas and lakes
3) Aspect
4) Sunlight hazards
What are the main irrigation techniques?
1) Drip irrigation
2) Sprinklers
3) Flood irrigation
What are water hazards are wine maker faces?
1) Drought
2) Too much water
3) Hail
How is powdery mildew treated?
Sulfer-based spray
How is downy mildew treated?
Copper-based spray
Depth filtration
thick layer of material to trap solid parts of very cloudy wines and remove the gross lees
Surface filtration
Very fine sieves to trap solid particles on the surface of the filter. Filters are very expensive and clog up easily, so used for wines that have already been passed through a depth filter
Sterile filtration
When surface filtration pore size is small enough to remove yeast and bacteria that might still be present in the wine. Treatment prior to bottling.
Douro Valley Port Vineyard areas
1) Baixo Corgo
2) Cima Corgo
3) Douro Superior
Ruby Port
Typically between 1-3 years old
Reserve / Reserva Port
Can be applied to both Ruby and Tawny ports that are of higher quality. Determined by official tasting pane.
Tawny
Undergo long oxidative maturation in barrels called pipes
Turn garnet and then tawny, but oldest turn brown
Primary fruit fades, become raisiny, walnut, coffee, chocolate, caramel
Throw deposit during wood ageing and require little extra treatment before bottling
Fully developed on release - no benefit to bottle aging
Tawny Reserve / Reserva
Must be wood-aged for a minimum of six years
Late Bottled Vintage (LBV)
Vintage wines aged between 4 and 6 years before bottled. Typically large-oak vessels.
Like Reserve, most are fined and filtered and drink upon release, rarely benefit from bottle aging…but some are unfiltered like Vintage Port and can age / throw sediment
Tawny with an Indication of Age
long period of oxidation maturation in pipes
can be labeled 10, 20, 30, 40
age on label is average age, NOT youngest component of blend
label must state year of bottling - lose freshness after bottling
Vintage Port
aging takes place in large oak vessel or stainless steel tanks
wines are unfined and unfiltered
capable of aging for decades and will throw heavy sediment
only produced on average 3 times per decade
producers must register their intention to release a Vintage Port in the 2nd year after harvest and wine bottled no later than the 3rd year
Single Quinta Vintage Ports
product of a single estate, or quinta
In years that are not considered good enough for a vintage to be declared they will release their best wines as Single Qunita
Less prestigious than Vintage Port, but still high-quality
Muscat
low to medium acid and aromos of orange blossom, rose, and grape
can thrive in warm and hot climates but best vineyards benefit from cooling influence to preserve acid and aromas
Youthful, Unaged Muscats
medium gold in color, floral, aromatic
sweet but rarely luscious
grapes picked when ripe and healthy (raisining or drying grapes after picking to concentrate sugars is NOT common)
some skin contact used to increase aromatic intensity and add richness, which may continue during fermentation
Fermentation is cool and stopped by fortification of 96% abv to give sweet wine.
stored in inert vessels to preserve primary fruit aromas
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise
Youthful, unaged muscat from Southern Rhone
Fully Developed, Aged Muscats
Range in color from amber to brown
can be sweet or luscious
style determined by 1) timing of harvest 2) when wines are fortified and 3) length and type of aging
grapes picked while ripe and healthy, but to make more luscious style, some raisining may be allowed to happen before picking
Fermentation takes place on skin
Luscious style - fortification may take place when fermentation reaches 2% abv
Wines undergo oxidative aging that can last for decades
old wood is essential - usually large oak vessels
may be aged in warm conditions
As they age, wine becomes amber and then brown and develop pronounced oxidative aromas
oldest wines may be given aromatic lift by adding small amount of more youthful wine prior to bottling
Rutherglen
Australia - most celebrated of luscious style of fully developed, aged Muscat
Minimum ageing requirements for Non-Vintage Champagne
15 months, 12 months on lees
Minimum ageing requirements for Vintage Champagne
36 months, no minimum lees
Montagne de Reims
Champagne region for Pinot Noir
Provides body and structural backbone
Vallée de la Marne
Champagne region for Meunier
buds late, protecting it from spring frosts that are common
provides fruity flavors to blend
Côte des Blancs
Champagne region for Chardonnay
Côte de Sézanne
Champagne region for Chardonnay
Côtes des Bar
Champagne region for Pinot Noir
Cremant
Traditional method outside of Champagne in France
Minimum 9 months on lees
Cremant d’Alsace varietals
Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir
No aromatic varieties (e.g., Muscat and Gewurtztraminer)
Crement de Bourgogne
Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Aligote
Sparkling Saumur
Chadonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Cabernet Franc
Sparkling Vouvray
Majority is made from Chenin Blanc
Does not take on a bready, biscuity character as Chardonnay or Pinot Noir
Autolytic character tends to be more smoky and toasty
Annual growth cycle of the vine
1) Budburst
2) Shoot and Leaf Growth
3) Flowering
4) Fruitset
5) Veraison and Berry Ripening
6) Harvest
In order to ripen successfully the vine needs an average temperature during the growing season of between ____ and ____ degrees celsius
16 and 22 degrees
What latitudes are grapes grown between?
30 and 50 degrees
What are the 2 main species of grape vines?
- Vitis vinifera
- North American Vines (3 chief species):
Vitis labrusca
Vitis riparia
Vitis rupestris
What are 3 different ways a vine can be propagated?
- Clonal selection: when beneficial mutations occur in a vine and a nursery or viticulturist isolates and propagates the new, positive characteristics;
- Cutting - (aka Massale Selection) when a section of a shoot is cut off from an existing vine and planted in order to grow a brand new plant. Viticulturists do this to safeguard and perpetuate the positive characteristics of the original plant;
- Layering: A vine’s 1 year-old cane is bent into the ground and partially buried with the tip of the cane poking out above ground; the buried part grows roots and establishes itself as a new plant.
What is head grafting and why is it used?
Head grafting is when a vine’s top, or head, is cut off its trunk and the cutting of a new variety is grafted on to where the old head was.
The purpose of head grafting is to switch out grape varieties instead of uprooting and replanting an entire vineyard. Head grafting is a lot less expensive than replanting an entire vineyard with the added bonus of keeping the established trunk and roots.
Name 3 different ways to create new grape varieties.
Cross-Fertilization
Crossing
Hybrid
What is the difference between crossings and hybrids?
Crossings: when a new grape variety is created by crossing parents of the same vine species, e.g. Cabernet Sauvignon (Sauvignon Blanc x Cabernet Franc - both V. vinifera).
Hybrids: when at least two different vine species, usually a North American vine and a vinifera vine, are crossed to create a brand new vine species, e.g. Concord and Vidal Blanc (only 1 parent is V. vinifera).
What is the crossing of Müller-Thurgau?
Riesling x Madeleine Royale
Of the two main vine species, which one is more resistant to phylloxera? How does it protect itself?
North American vine species are more resistant to phylloxera. It is for this reason American rootstocks are widely used across the world.
The North American vine protects itself from phylloxera by seeping a sticky sap that inhibits the louse from eating, and the vine generates a defensive layer behind a wound which prevents the louse from damaging the plant material further.
What are the 4 main parts of a vine?
Roots
Permanent wood
1 year-old wood
Green parts (also known as the canopy: leaves, grapes, tendrils, etc.)
What is the difference between a cane and spur?
They’re both 1 year-old wood from the previous year’s growth. However, the main difference between them is how may buds each has.
Cane: a long woody branch with 8 to 20 buds
Spur: a short woody branch with only 2 to 4 buds
What are the 2 main types of vine training?
- Head trained
usually just a trunk with a couple of spurs or replacement canes, no permanent “arms”; - Cordon trained
a trunk with one or two permanent arms, or “cordons”, that look like a bent extension of the trunk.
Give 2 examples of head-trained vines.
- Guyot
- Bush
Bush vines tend to produce a lush canopy, so they perform best in hot regions such as Jérèz or Southern Rhône where the grapes need the extra shade.
Bush vines are generally head-trained and spur-pruned (meaning, 2-4 buds on each 1 year-old growth).
On what training system are you most likely to see replacement-cane pruning?
On head-trained vines.
If a head-trained vine has 1 cane, it’s called Single Guyot.
If a head-trained vine has 2 canes, it’s called Double Guyot
What is transpiration?
Transpiration is how a vine takes water up through its roots and disperses it to its leaves.
Describe Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP).
Where is VSP commonly seen?
VSP is commonly seen in cool climates.
VSP is a cordon-trained vine whose shoots are positioned in an upward direction attached to the wires that connect posts within a row in a vineyard.
Attaching the canopy to wires allows air circulation and the grapes to be exposed to direct sunlight.
What are high-trained and low-trained vines?
High-trained vines are vines that are trained high off the ground to avoid frost and humidity.
Low-trained vines are vines that are trained closer to the ground so the grapes can benefit from radiating heat coming off the ground.
What are the 5 most important things a vine needs to survive?
Heat Water Sunlight Nutrients Carbon dioxide
What are the top three most important nutrients for vines?
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
This nutrients are naturally present in soil.
Vines go dormant at what temperature?
At what temperature can a vine freeze to death?
Dormant: 10°C (50°F)
Freeze to death: below -20ºC (-4ºF)
When is the growing season?
Growing season for:
Northern hemisphere: April - October
Southern hemisphere: October - April
When does flowering happen?
Northern hemisphere: May/June
Southern hemisphere: November/December
Frost is most dangerous around which phase of the vine’s annual cycle?
What are some adverse effects from frost?
Budburst is when frost is most dangerous (March/April in Northern Hempishere, Sept/Oct in Southern Hemisphere).
Adverse effects:
if frost occurs right before budburst, it can delay budburst which means the grapes are at risk of not fully ripening before autumn;
new plant material can freeze and die;
spring frost damage can decrease the annual yield;
fungal diseases can develop if the weather stays wet.
What is Coulure?
Coulure is poor flower set due to cold or rainy conditions or poor fertilzation. The flowers drop from the cluster, known as “shatter.”
What is the term for poor or irregular fruit set due to cold or rainy conditions (it produces clusters with “hens and chicks”)?
Millerandage
During the summer months, what vineyard management techniques help control the quality and ripeness of the grapes?
Green harvesting: dropping underdeveloped clusters right after véraison so the vine puts its energy into the remaining clusters;
De-leafing: removing leaves near the fruit zone so the grapes see more direct sunlight.
Which type of sherry wines are selected for biological ageing?
Lighter paler wines with more finesse - generally grapes grown in the relatively cooler coastal vineyards or fermented at lower temperatures
Which type of sherry wines are selected for oxidative ageing?
Darker, richer, heavier wines - generally grapes grown in warmer inland vineyards or fermented at higher temperatures
What abv is biological aged sherry fortified to?
15% - 15.5%: ideal strenth for flor development
What abv is oxidative aged sherry fortified to?
17%: at this strength flor dies
What is Sobretabla?
Stage of sherry making where after base wine is fortified, wine is set aside for a period of a few months before being incorporated into a solera system.
Fino Sherry
Dry sherry that has only undergone biological ageing
pale lemon, aromas of citrus, almonds, herbs, bread. tangy or salty flavors.
Do not improve in bottle - consume as fresh as possible
Manzanilla
Matured in coastal town of Sanlucar de Barrameda Made in same way as Finos from Jerez, but cooler/humid conditions create thick layer of flor year-round which result in more tangy aromas
Oloroso
Only undergone oxidative ageing. Brown in color, full-bodied, toffee, leather, spice, walnut
Amontillado
Biological ageing followed by oxidative ageing
once biological ageing done, refortified to 17% abv to kill flor
Amber in color, less full-bodied than Oloroso
Can be matured for as long as Oloroso
Palo Cortado
Aroma character of Amontillado but body and richness of Oloroso
Pedro Ximenez (PX)
deep brown, lusciously sweet (500 g/L RS)
pronounced aromas of dried fruit, coffee, and licorice
Pale Cream
Sweetened sherry - undergone short period of biological ageing prior to sweetening with RCGM.
Similar appearance to Fino but rarely have pronounced flor character
Medium Shery
Sweetened style of sherry. Must show characteristics from both biological and oxidative ageing
Cream Sherry
Sweetened style of sherry. Only oxidative characteristics. Premium will be sweetened with PX wine. The best balance toffee, leather, and walnut flavors of the dry wine with dried fruit notes of sweet wine
Sherries with Indication of Age
- VORS (Very Old Rare Sherry) - average age of blend is at least 30 years old.
- VOS (Very Old Sherry) - average age of blend is at least 20 years old.
- 12 year old
- 15 year old
Only Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso, and PX can qualify for age indicated status.
cuvee
The first liquid to come off the press when making Champagne - contains the purest juice.
Best Champagnes made solely from cuvee
taille
The liquid that comes off the press AFTER the cuvee (first liquid) when making Champagne
What are the 3 methods of making rose wines?
- Direct Pressing: black grapes crushed and pressed in same way as in white wine production. Extracts a little color from skin. Produces most delecate colored wines
- Short Maceration: black grapes crushed and allowed to macerate to extract flavor and color. Free run juice drained off skins and fermented at cool temperatures as if it were a white wine
- Blending: small quantity of red wine added to a white wine. Not permitted in EU except for rose Champagne.
Salta
Province in Argentina - highest altitude vineyards in world
Torrontes in the Cafayate region
Torrontes
Argentina white varietal intense fruity, floral perfume medium body and acidity stone fruit and melon fermented in inert, temp controlled vessels and released early
Lujan de Cuyo
Department in Central Mendoza known for old-vine Malbecs at altitude
Maipu
Department in Central Mendoza - lower altitude than Lujan de Cuyo.
Syrah and CS performs well
High volume, inexpensive wine for domestic and export
Uco Valley
Highest altitude in Mendoza
Cool nights retain acidity and fresh flavors
San Rafael
Department in Southern Mendoza
Low altitude, but cool due to southern location
Chenin Blanc
Fiano
White grape in Campania Italy
Medium acid, medium to full body, stone fruit, melon, mango
mostly drunk young but some age in bottle with wax and honey
Greco
White grape in Campania Italy
More acidity and leaner in body than Fiano
green apple, stone fruit, passion fruit
best can age with honey and mushroom
Aglianico
Black grape in Campania and Basilicata Italy
Deep color, high acid and tannin, black fruit
matured in oak and can age in bottle: earthy, forest floor notes
Best is in Taurasi DOC (Campania) and Aglianico del Vulture DOC (Basilicata)
Frascati DOC
Best known wine from Lazio Italy
Blends of Malvasia and Trebbiano
fresh, unoaked style
medium body, medium-high acid, citrus fruit, can have floral, orange blossom aromas from Malvasia
Montepulciano
Black grape, main wine in Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC in Abruzzo
High colour and tannin, medium acid, black plums and cherries.
Asti and Alba
Regions in Northern Italy
Produces Barbera and Dolcetto
Also famous for Asti sparkling lines from Moscato
What are 3 reasons for trellising vineyards?
1) Arrangement of young shoots can be used to control amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy (regions with limited vs. intense sunlight)
2) Open canopy can improve air circulation through the leaves and grapes - important in wet climates to reduce risk of fungal diseases
3) Aid mechanization in the vineyard - positioning grapes in one area of vine and leaves in another enables mechanization and more effective spraying of insecticides and fungicides
Besides clay, what soil element is known for good water retention?
Humus, which is organic matter made up of decomposing plant and animal materials.
What is the composition of loam soil?
Loam is a mixture of sand and clay. It has both good water drainage and retention due to its composition.
How often is a vineyard typically replanted?
About every 30 to 50 years.
Name some vineyard pests other than phylloxera
Birds
Deer
Nematodes
Insects
What are nematodes, and what damage can they cause to a vine?
Microscopic worms that eat the roots of vines, leaving open wounds through which viruses are known to enter.
Nematodes spread one particularly damaging nepovirus that causes Fan Leaf Degeneration, which deforms shoot growth, leads to poor fruit set, and reduces yields. Affected vines must be removed, they cannot be grafted.
Name 3 fungal diseases.
1) Downy mildew
2) Powdery mildew
3) Grey Rot
What are the two main styles of quality Merlot?
1) “International” style - grapes harvested late as possible giving intense purple color, concentrated blackberry and plum fruit, soft velvet tannins. Matured in new oak adding toasty flavors. New World, south of France, some Bordeaux estates
2) Harvest grapes earlier - med body and alcohol, but higher acid, fresh red fruit, vegetal and leafy aromas. Rarely found outside Bordeaux.
Describe sustainable agriculture
Use of synthetic chemicals is restricted but not prohibited;
Spraying or applying chemicals only when needed;
practicing Integrated Pest Management - introducing natural predators to control pests;
Creating biodiversity in the vineyard.
Describe organic viticulture.
Synthetic chemicals not allowed;
The only real chemicals allowed are sulfur and copper, and their applications are restricted;
If a winery wants to be certified organic, they must apply for accreditation with one of the certifying bodies and work their vineyard organically for at least 2 years prior to certification.
Describe biodynamic agriculture.
Biodynamics is much more than a method, it is a spiritual science, a belief system — a holistic way of seeing and understanding the natural world that focuses on regenerative practices.
Biodynamics sees the vineyard as an ecological whole: not just rows of grapevines, but the soil beneath them—an organism in its own right—and the other flora and fauna in the area, growing together interdependently.
Where biodynamics differs from organic or sustainable agriculture is in its idea that farming can be attuned to the spiritual forces of the cosmos. This might mean linking sowing and harvesting to the phases of the moon or the positions of the planets.
What is chlorosis?
Chlorosis is a nutrient deficiency in the soil that affects the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. A sign of chlorosis is yellow leaves and poor overall growth. Grapes struggle to ripen property and quality/quantity is reduced.
The usual cause for chlorosis is a lack of iron in the soil. Farmers will either add iron-rich fertilizers.
What are the advantages of mechanical harvesting?
1) fast
2) efficient - berries are shaken from stems so there is no need for a destemmer
3) decreases number of laborers
4) can be done overnight which saves costs on lowering grapes’ temperatures prior to processing them.
What are the advantages of hand harvesting?
1) easier to control grape quality;
2) usually less berry damage, therefore fewer oxidation issues;
3) whole clusters are picked which keeps stems intact;
4) In some places (usually steep and/or with terraces built centuries ago), handpicking is the only option, e.g. Mosel, Valtellina, Northern Rhône.
Define a maritime climate
Cool to moderate temperatures and low annual difference between hottest and coldest months (low continentality). Rainfall evenly spread throughout year which moderates temperature, resulting in temperatures warm enough for grapes to continue ripening into fall.
Rainfall in spring and summer can be harmful to flowering, fruit set, and health of grapes at harvest
Bordeaux and Rías Baixas are examples of Maritime climates.
Describe Mediterranean climate.
Low temperature difference between hottest and coldest months, summers tend to be warm and dry. Most rainfall is in winter.
lead to wines that are fuller bodied, riper tannins, higher alcohol, lower acidity.
Ex: coastal California, Chile, South Africa, South Eastern Australia
Describe Continental climate.
Greatest difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months (high continentality). Short summers with large, rapid temperature drop in autumn. Dry summers.
Cool continental (e.g., Chablis and Champagne) at risk for spring frost, low temps can affect flowering, fruit set, and ripening.
Best suited to varieties that bud late and ripen early
What natural factor plays the largest role in influencing California’s vineyard climate?
California Ocean Current
latitude plays relatively small role. Mountains along coast shield much of state from cooling effects
What is the rain shadow effect?
As weather systems move from west to east, foul weather is stopped by or trapped in mountains thereby leaving the eastern side of mountains with brilliant sunshine and nice weather. The western side gets all the rain and clouds.
The Vosges, Cascades, and Andes Mountains are all examples of mountain ranges that create rain shadows.
What is diurnal shift?
Change in temperature from daytime to nighttime.
The larger the diurnal shift (lower lows, higher highs) the better it is for the vine; warm daytime temps help develop sugar and phenolic ripeness whereas cool nighttime temps help preserve acidity and freshness.
What happens to a vine when it suffers from drought conditions?
A vine will shut down if it doesn’t have enough water to produce photosynthesis.
leaves will stop all work
sugars won’t be produced
grapes won’t ripen properly
Why is rain at harvest not a good thing?
- Dilution of flavors in grapes
- Dilution of sugars in grapes
- Create rot
This is why winemakers will have to decide to pick either before a big rain or wait several days after the rain for the vines to metabolize the rainwater.
Explain véraison.
The onset of ripening and when the grapes change color.
Red varieties turn from green to purple or black, and sugars increase while acidity levels decrease.
What are some important considerations winemakers have to weigh before processing and fermenting white grapes?
Length of skin contact, if any Fermentation temperature Fermentation vessel Use of lees Malolactic fermentation
What are some commonly practiced must adjustment techniques?
- Enrichment - adding sugar via RGCM or a non-grape source (Chaptalisation)
- Remove water from juice to concentrate sugars
- Acidification
- Deacidification
Which acid is typically used to acidify a wine?
Tartaric acid
How is a wine deacidified?
By adding an alkali (an acid neutralizer).
What is the most common must adjustment made to white grapes from warm/hot climates?
Acidification
What is chaptalisation?
Adding sugar before or during fermentation in order to increase the alcohol level in a wine.
Beet and cane sugar are the most common forms of sugar used.
Why do most white wines spend little time in contact with their skins?
Reduce the risk of oxidation and the extraction of unwanted flavors.
Why would some winemakers keep white wine juice in contact with the grape skins?
Skin contact increases flavor intensity and texture
When are grapes for white wines pressed?
Before fermentation (ideally, shortly after they’re harvested and brought to the winery)
What techniques can a winemaker use to clarify the must of a white wine?
1) Fining
2) Filtration
3) Settling
4) Centrifugation
What can happen to a white wine if the winemaker does not clarify the must adequately?
Unpleasant aromas can form from microbiological issues and fermentation may stop.
Why do some winemakers chose not to over-clarify their white wine musts?
Some winemakers believe that having a small amount of grape solids in a fermenting must will make the resulting wine less prone to oxidation; additionally, they feel these solids will contribute complex flavors and a more pleasing texture to the final wine.
What is the most commonly used yeast strain in winemaking? Why is it preferred?
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
This yeast strain is preferred because of its hardiness against SO2 and elevated levels of alcohol.
What sugar supports vine growth and makes grapes taste sweet?
Glucose
What aspects of winemaking will determine the speed of fermentation?
1) Type and quantity of yeasts;
2) Nutrient content in the must;
3) Concentration of sugars in the must;
4) Temperature (warmer temperatures mean faster fermentations);
5) How much SO2 is used (too much slows fermentation).
What is the optimum fermentation temperature for white wine?
Between 12°C - 22°C (54°F - 72°F)
What may happen if white wines are fermented at too low a temperature?
Yeasts may go dormant, but they can be woken up with an increase of heat;
Low fermentation temperatures may result in “pear drop” or pear candy aromas and may prevent a grape’s true varietal aromas from developing.
What may happen if white wines are fermented at too warm a fermentation temperature?
Yeasts may die;
Hot fermentation temperatures will sometimes create unappealing aromas, and there is a risk that the classic varietal character will be lost in the process.
What kinds of vessels are commonly used to ferment white wines?
Steel tanks
Oak barrels
Concrete
What are the advantages of fermenting white wines in stainless steel?
Stainless steel is inert (non-reactive), which helps maintain varietal character;
Temperature control systems are easier to build into stainless steel fermenters than oak or cement.
What are the advantages of fermenting in oak barrels?
Oak barrels are known to transfer heat effectively;
Oak barrels will add richer flavors and rounder textures.
What will cause a fermentation to cease (aka a stuck fermentation)?
All available sugar in a must is consumed;
Yeasts run out of nutrients to metabolize;
Temperatures exceed 35ºC (95ºF)
What are some important considerations winemakers must take into account post-fermentation in re: white wines?
What vessel to use (oak, stainless steel, etc.)
Whether to blend or not;
Whether to lees age or not;
Whether to allow, actively encourage, or completely block MLF;
Whether to fine or filter the wine, and how much.
What are some of the benefits of blending white wines post-fermentation?
1) improve consistency, texture, or flavor;
2) enhance balance;
3) create wines of a particular or desired style.
What flavors will aging in new oak add to white wines?
Oak aging is known to add flavors of vanilla, toast, bread, clove, dill, nutmeg, coconut, butterscotch, anise, and smoke.
What less-costly methods may be substituted for oak barrels but still add desirable oak flavors to value-priced white wines?
The use of oak staves or oak chips.
The oak flavors will be less well integrated into the final wine as oak barrels do more than just add oak flavors, which is why this cheaper method is never used for premium white wines.
What is malolactic fermentation?
Conversion of tarter malic acid (the same acid in an under-ripe apple) into softer, creamier, lactic acid (the same acid in milk or yogurt).
What are some notable effects of malolactic fermentation?
Lowers overall acidity;
Creates buttery aromas
Creates a little CO2
What are some ways to prevent malolactic fermentation?
Adding SO2 after primary fermentation completes;
Storing the wine at cool temperatures;
Sterile filtration
What are some ways to encourage malolactic fermentation?
Not adding SO2 or keeping levels very low;
Warm storage temperatures.
What white grape varieties are most likely to undergo malolactic fermentation?
Chardonnay and Viognier
What’s the difference between fining and filtering?
Fining removes the small stuff you can’t see - all the unstable, microscopic things in a wine (proteins, phenolic substances, etc.). If these things aren’t removed prior to bottling they can clump together later and make the wine appear hazy.
Filtering removes the big stuff you can see - all the large clumps (e.g. seeds, grape skins, pebbles, spiders).
Winemakers should ensure their wines are stable in what three areas?
1) Tartrates
2) Microbiological
3) Oxygen
How does a winemaker remove tartrate crystals?
By bringing down the wine’s temperature to 0ºC (32ºF) or colder for 1-2 weeks.
The crystals will preciptate out of the wine (they’re about the size of raw sugar crystals) and the winemaker filters them out.
What kinds of wine are susceptible to microbiological instability?
What kinds of wine are not easily susceptible to microbes?
Susceptible
- wines that haven’t gone through MLF
- wines with low or moderate alcohol
- wines low in acid
- wines with some residual sugar
Not susceptible
- wines high in alcohol
- wines high in acid
- wines that have gone through MLF
What are the major differences between red wine making and white wine making?
1) White wines are usually pressed before fermentation while red wines are pressed after fermentation;
2) Red wines spend an extended period of time in contact with their skins before and during fermentation, extracting tannin and color from the lengthy skin contact whereas white wines are direct pressed;
3) Reds always go through malolactic fermentation and for whites it’s really up to the winemaker to decide whether the white goes through MLF.
What does cold soaking do?
Cold soaking encourages a slow, long extraction of flavors and color (but not tannin) from red grapes at cool temperatures.
Tannins aren’t meaningfully extracted during cold soaks because tannins are more soluble in alcohol, which is present only after fermentation begins.
What are the 5 overarching steps in traditional red winemaking?
1) Pre-fermentation processing
2) Alcoholic fermentation
3) Draining and pressing
4) Malolactic fermentation
5) Maturation
What winemaking elements must be closely managed during red winemaking?
1) Density and temperature of the must;
2) Oxygen level of the must;
3) The cap that will be created during fermentation;
4) The duration of skin contact.
What is the typical temperature range for red wine fermentation? What happens to the yeasts if fermentation temps get too high?
Between 20°C - 32°C (68°F - 90°F).
If fermentation temps go over 90ºF there’s a risk the yeasts will die.
Why are red wines fermented at higher temperatures than white wines?
The higher temperatures allow for the extraction of color, flavor, and tannin which are the hallmarks of red wines.
What is the “cap” in red winemaking?
The cap is the accumulated raft of skins, seeds, and other grape solids that float to the top of a fermenting red wine.
What would happen to a red wine if the cap was not managed (punched down or pumped over) during winemaking?
If the cap is not managed, the resulting wine would be considerably less tannic, lighter in color, and would pack a less flavorful punch.
Off-odors would also develop as the yeasts need oxygen to survive.
What are some of the benefits of cap management?
As fermentation is an exothermic reaction, pumping over, punching down, and rack-and-return reduce the heat amassed during fermentation.
These methods also allow oxygen into the must and break up the cap.
Why must the punching down technique be practiced more carefully than other cap management methods?
At the end of the fermentation process, when alcohol is higher, tannins are more easily extracted from the cap and if not practiced correctly, punching down can result in an exceedingly bitter and rough final wine.
What is one of the key advantages of using a rotary fermenter?
Rotary fermenters continuously agitate the cap and juice together making extraction fast but, if the winemaker isn’t careful, extraction can be too deep and intense.
Rotary fermenters are commonly used in Australia.
What wine region is most well known for its use of both carbonic and semi-carbonic maceration?
Beaujolais
How is carbonic maceration carried out?
Whole clusters of grapes are placed in fermentation vessels with CO2 pumped on top of the grapes. The anerobic environment will start the fermentation without yeast by using enzymes already within the grapes, converting the grapes’ sugars into alcohol.
What aromas and flavors will carbonic maceration give to a wine?
Bananas
Kirsch
Bubble gum
Cinnamon
How does semi-carbonic maceration differ from carbonic maceration?
Semi-carbonic does not use an initial hit of CO2 to blanket the grapes;
Semi-carbonic allows a traditional, yeast-driven fermentation at the bottom of the fermentation vessel.
When a red wine stays on its skins after primary fermentation is finished it’s called extended maceration.
What’s the benefit of extended maceration?
This allows the red wine additional time to draw out further color, tannins, and other compounds from the grape solids.
Whether or not to do extended maceration is entirely up to the winemaker.
When are grapes for red wines pressed?
After fermentation has completed.
Malolactic fermentation is _______ used in the production of red wines.
Always
For red wine production malolactic fermentation is standard practice instead of a stylistic choice.
Do rosé wines undergo malolactic fermentation?
Malolactic fermentation is avoided for most rosé production as the crisp, fresh acidity of these wines is a defining feature of the rosé style.
What wine regions are known for making rosé wines using the direct press method?
1) Côtes de Provence
2) Languedoc
Which wine regions are known for making rosé in the short maceration method?
1) Anjou (Loire)
2) Bordeaux Clairet
3) Tavel (Rhône)
Gruner Veltliner
can be full-bodied, high acid, concentrated wines if grown with care
citrus, stone fruit, white pepper in youth, develops honey and toast as it ages
majority ferment and store in stainless steel, but old oak casks also commonly used. some may mature best wines in new oak barrels.
What conditions are needed for flor to thrive?
Precise levels of
1) alcohol (can’t be above 15.5% abv)
2) temperature (favors cool to moderate temps)
3) humidity (favors high levels of humidity)
Grows more vigorously in spring/fall and dies back in winter/summer
What gives biologically aged Sherries their unique flavor?
Acetaldehyde that is produced by flor (flor feeds off alcohol and nutrients in wine, and produces CO2 and acetaldehyde)
VDP - Verband Deutscher Pradikatsweinguter
Independent group of German wine producers that classify vineyards that include best sites
Grosses Gewachs (GG)
Trademark of the VDP - not part of German wine law
Classification given by the members of VDP of dry wines from their best vineyard sites in Germany
Varieties permitted by VDP vary by region
What is the French PDO?
AOP - Appellation d’origine protegee
AC or AOC (Appellation d’origine controlee) is most widely seen on labels.
Common for a plot of land to be covered by both generic and more prestigious appellation, each user a producer can choose which to use
What is the French PGI?
Indication geographique protogee (IGP)
Vin de Pays (VdP) is a traditional term that often seen on labels
What are French wines without a GI called?
Vin de France
crus classes
In Medoc and Sauternes, chateaux that are listed within the 1855 Classification quality levels
cru bourgeois
In Medoc and Sauternes, a classification for non-crus classes awarded to wine in a specific vintage (vs. the chateatu itself), therefore must be submitted each year for classification
Graves (Pessac-Leognant) classificiation
Wines of Graves classified with parallel but separate lists for red and white wines - no ranking, all listed wines may call themselves crus classes
All crus classe chateaux lie within limits of Pessac-Leognan (appellation was created after Graves classification was drawn up)
Saint-Emilion Grand Cru
Classification system is integrated into the appellation system
Within Saint-Emilion there is separate appellation Saint-Emilion Grand Cru, and within this another classification
Lower step is Saint-Emilion Grand Cru Classe
Above this is Saint-Emilion Premier Grand Cru Classe, which is sub-divided into Premier Grand Cru Classe A (the best) and Premier Grand Cru Classe B
Reclassifications of promotions and demotions at least once every 10 years.
Burgundy Appellation Hierarchy
1) Regional Appellations (examples: Bourgogne Rouge or Bourgogne Blanc…more restricted areas include Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Nuits, Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Beaune, Bourgogne Cote Chalonnaise, Macon for red or white or Macon Villages for white wines only)
2) Commune Appellations (examples: Chablis, Gevrey-Chambertin). About 1/3 of total production.
3) Single Vineyard Appellations : Premier Crus and Grand Crus
Premier crus produce 10% of total. Can come from single vineyard and have name on label, or blended and no vineyard name on label)
Grand Crus produce 1% of total. 33 in Cote d’Or and 1 in Chablis. Only the vineyard appears on the label.
Pradikat levels for labeling in Austria
Mainly reserved for medium-sweet and sweet wines
Same as in Germany, except 2 additional Pradikate
* Ausbruch (bewteen BA and TBA)
* Strohwein or Schilfwein: bunches of grapes laid out on beds of straw or reeds during winter to concentrate sugars
Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC)
In Austria, if producers in a region agree on grape varieties, style of wine, and set of regulations they think best reflects the area, region can be awarded DAC
Italian PDO Wine
Denominazione di Origine Protetta (DOP), but more commonly on label:
- DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata) - subject to geographical boundaries, limits on grape varieties and production methods
- DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantite) - meet DOC, bottled in area of production, and subject to Ministry of Agriculture tasting
Italian PGI Wine
Indicazione Geografica Protetta (IGP), but traditional term is most commonly used: Indicazione Geografica Tipica)
Italian labeling term “Classico”
Acknowledges wines that have been made solely from the original classified land and includes many best wines from the area
Italian labeling term “ Riserva”
Wines with both higher alcohol levels and longer ageing than the minimums stipulated by the appellation laws
Spanish PDO wines
DOP: Denominacion de Origen Protegida, but more commonly used
DO: Denominacion de Origen
DOCa: Denominacion de Origen Calificada
Spanish DO Labeling
Denominacion de Origen: wines of a certain minimum quality, satisfying specifications covering grape varieties, viticulture, and location
Spanish DOCa labeling
Denominacion de Origen Calificada: DOs of at least 10 years standing can apply for more prestigious category.
* Only 2 DOCa : Rioja and Priorat
Spanish labeling term VP
Vinos de Pago (VP): small number of single estates with high reputation. Approved estates may only use their own grapes, which must be vinified and matured on their estate
Spanish PGI Wines
VdIT: Vino de la Tierra
Portuguese PDO
DOP: Denominacao de Origem Protegida, but traditional term DOC (Denominacao de Origem Controlada) is also widely used
Portuguese PGI
IGP: Indicacao Geografica Protegida, but traditional term Vinho Regional is still seen on wine labels
IPW: Integrated Production of Wine
South Africa voluntary sustainable agricultural scheme
Certified producers can display their credentials as a part of their W.O. seals
Dordogne
East of Entre-Deux-Mers
Similar climate to Bordeaux, but less moderating maritime influence
Bergerac is major appellation
Monbazillac is here as well
Hawke’s Bay
East coast of North Island, NZ
Warmest of main grape growing areas and longest sunshine hours
diverse soils and aspect/altitude of plantings
Gimblett Gravels
Bolgheri DOC
Appellation on Tuscany coast that permit wines to be made entirely from non-Italian varieties including CS, Merlot, and Syrah
Dornfelder
German black variety that is widely planted
deeply colored wines