Question 4 (Sheriff+ W&R)

Question 1

4 A01 Watson and Raynor

Answer 1

Phobias could be acquired through classical conditioning

11 month old boy

Trialed element that cause a feat reaction from loud bang (UCR)

This was paired with a rat, the phobia was then generalized to all fluffy items.

Question 2

4 A01 Sherif

Answer 2

Feild experiment on prejudice

Group formation (rattlers and eagles)

Group competition (tug of war)

Prejudice was formed which could be over come by superordinate goals

Question 3

Definition of reductionism

Answer 3

Breaking phenomenon down into parts and analysing it

Question 4

Practical issues W&R

Answer 4

• conducted on one young child. This could compromise the validity of the study because the young children may in fact be more malleable than adults and therefore easier to classically condition.
• Similarly, induces a fear via association in one young child may be difficult to generalise other children in the target population. There may be subtle participant variables that could compromise the studies findings.
• C/A: That said, the study used standardised procedure and therefore could well be replicated to assess external reliability of the data produced.
• It is highly controlled so cause and effect can be established
• CC/A: However, the standardised observation structure may mean that the novel behaviours may well be missed.

Also the study lacks relevance to real life situations in which phobias develop.

Question 5

Practical issues Sherief

Answer 5

Lack of control: Sherif was a field experiment. This means that extraneous variables could well compromise the findings of the study e.g. other camp counsellors/lack of consistency in rating the boys behaviour

Sampling issues: The use of individuals with similar characteristics means that the sample may not generalise to prejudice production in females or non religious validity.

C/A: That said the use of a field experiments meant that Sherif could monitor real time development of prejudice. This means that the study has high ecological validity. The tasks used were similar to normal summer activities and so this means that the study is realistic.

The study is considered reliable due to the standardised structure of the study. However, the use of observations means that the interpretation of the observations could compromise the validity of the study.

Question 6

Definition of practical issues

Answer 6

In design & implementation of research, for example issues with reliability and validity, issues preventing scientific design (e.g. lack of random allocation)

Question 7

Reductionism W&R

Answer 7

The use of a controlled, standardised setting to isolate the stimulus and response pairings by Watson and Rayner (1920) is a reductionist way to assess learning
It ignores the complex role of phobia generation e.g. imitation and the formation of phobias as a result of others.
The use of high degrees of control may also be reductionist e.g. it compromises the external validity of the study.
The use of one male child is reductionist as phobia generation may well not apply to females of the same age group or adult participants.
HOWEVER
C/A: The use of non holistic methods allows the researcher to establish cause and effect and provides scientific credibility.
This then means that the research can be used to develop treatments for phobias (as it was for systematic desensitisation). This means that the research, despite being reductionist has useful applications to real life.

Question 8

Reductionism Sherief

Answer 8

It is reductionist to assume the prejudice was a result of competition. It could be a result of simple division of groups (intergroup conflict).
The use of a high degree of control e.g. matching the sample based on age, gender, sporting ability contributes to the idea that Sherif’s study is reductionist.
Ignores the role of biology e.g. it may have been easier to generate hostility in boys who may be impacted by surges in testosterone.
Not using girls creates a very narrow/reductionist sample.
HOWEVER
The use of hidden video camera’s means that a holistic view of prejudice generation can gained. (That said, the participants could impacted by demand characteristics if they notice the cameras).
The prejudice shown may be a result of having overly competitive individuals in the sample. Others may not respond in the same way.

Question 9

Definition of social conditioning

Answer 9

Examples whereby psychology has been used as a means of controlling behaviour- particularly relates to treatments

Question 10

Social control Watson and Rayner

Answer 10

Little Albert showed fear to the rat and other stimuli over a period of time due to the association with the loud noise which caused fear (the UCR / CR)

led to treatments such as flooding and systematic desentisation
This means that the therapist exerts a lot of power in the therapy setting which could be a source of psychological distress.

the use of social control may be unnecessary if when out of the therapy setting individuals face the fear stimulus and it leads to spontaneous recovery. Therefore the benefits of social control may not outweigh the costs.

That said, other treatments such as systematic desensitisation have less control from a therapist and therefore maybe more beneficial than flooding. Therefore a useful form of social control

Aversion therapy is a treatment which uses classical conditioning principles to attempt to socially control/minimise drug use

Only one 11 month old male was tested in Watson and Rayner (1920) which is not representative of the general population so any treatments that are developed from this research may not be helpful for a lot of people.

Little Albert’s mother withdrew him from the study so his fear of rats (or other stimuli) cannot be tested to see if it can be extinguished so negative forms of social control could be long lasting

Question 11

Social control Sherief

Answer 11

highlighted that prejudice could be reduced using superordinate goals. This could argued to be a form of social control.

That said, this form of social control may well not be useful if the methods used by Sherif were invalid e.g. observations leading to demand characteristics/lack of control/inconsistent rating of boys behaviour

Question 12

Nature Vs nurture definition

Answer 12

The central question is the extent to which our behaviour is determined by our biology (nature) and the genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors (nurture) such as home school and friends.

Question 13

Nature Vs nurture Watson and Rayner

Answer 13

Little Albert showed crying and avoidance behaviour to a rat after it had been paired with a loud noise repeatedly over time.

Little Albert initially showed no fear response to objects such as cotton or human masks but did show fear when a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer behind his back.

support the nurture argument as Little Albert learned to fear the rat and other inanimate objects through associating the loud noise to the objects and animals.

The change in behaviour shown by Little Albert throughout the study with no fear to the rat but strong fear after some time shows the clear influence of nurture factors in causing phobic type reactions in humans.

C/A: However, the fear could be an evolved trait as unexpected loud noises could be a threat to survival so could contribute to the nature explanation for fear responses.

intended to attempt to remove the conditioned emotional responses through techniques such as reconditioning by providing incentives such as sweets when the animal was presented which could have supported the nurture argument for associative learning but Little Albert was removed before this could take place.

Question 14

Nature Vs nurture Sherief

Answer 14

Sherif found that prejudice could be created through competition found in the natural environment. This implies the role of the environment is a major factor.

C/A boys may demonstrate more aggression naturally than females. It could be argued that the hostility demonstrated may be a result of innate drives.

aggression as a result of competing for resources is said to be an evolved response, further implying that nature is plays a role in the boys behaviour.

CC/A: There are also cultural differences in prejudice, which are not measured in the study e.g. the prejudice shown in Sherif’s study only looked at one culture e.g
In collectivist cultures prejudice may be less or more likely to occur which would be an environmental influence.
It may well be very difficult to measure social pressures and whether they are a result of nature or nurture, unless research is conducted cross culturally.

Question 15

Individual differences

Answer 15

An understanding of how issues relating to culture and gender arise in psychological research

Question 16

Individual differences Sherief

Answer 16

used the findings from a group of boys in an American summer camp and made generalised assertions about prejudice.

Sherif’s research may be considered a form of beta bias where the assertions made regarding prejudice and discrimination concerning the role of competition and cooperation were gained from male-only samples and applied to women without additional validation. The tasks set in the study may also be male centric e.g. co-operative tasks such as tug of war may also be a source of gender bias.

C/A:That said, during the time of Sherif’s study it may have been difficult to study girls as they may not have gone to summer camp so the sample used was more accessible to Sherif.

the study may not apply to other cultures and so can be considered ethnocentric.
The tasks such as tug of war etc. may not be applicable to collectivist cultures where they may well not engage in competitive tasks within one community. Therefore, Sherif is likely to have imposed his findings using an individualistic westernised bias.

it is difficult to study prejudice across cultures and if western researchers go to collectivist cultures to conduct research they may impose their cultural values on the data shown. This could compromise the validity of the findings.

Question 17

Individual differences Watson and Rayner

Answer 17

W&R used a single young boy called Albert in their experiment. It assumes that females would respond in the same way. Therefore the findings of the study are alpha biased

Cultural issue as we cannot be sure if children from non-western cultures would be as easily influenced by environmental stimuli. Therefore could be classified as ethnocentric
Individuals from environments with more threatening stimuli may be less easy to manipulate within laboratory conditions.

However, the study is highly controlled giving the research scientific credibility.
Also fear is a universal behaviour, so the findings should apply across most cultures

Question 18

Ethics definition

Answer 18

There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.

Question 19

Ethical issues Sherief

Answer 19

lack of consent from the boys as they were not aware that they were part of a study.

This has implications for the right to withdraw.

However parents did consent for the boys to take part in the study.

Also, exposing youngsters to situations which create hostility can be considered unethical

The names of the boys were not used. Therefore, the ethical guidelines of privacy and confidentiality were kept.

use of deception may be problematic e.g. use of hidden cameras. That said, the use of deception led to improved validity. If the boys were aware that they were being studied their behaviour would no longer be natural.

Question 20

Watson and Rayner ethics

Answer 20

issues with the way in which Albert was selected.

ethical issues because of the way in which the young participant was manipulated because it could be argued that Little Albert was unduly manipulated into the development of his phobia

Little Albert was put through uncomfortable trials which to establish his conditioned response of fear. This may have breached the guideline of the right to withdraw
Protection from harm – both within the study and the long lasting damage e.g. he generalised his phobia to a range of fluffy items.

That said, he was removed from the study ahead of phobia treatment
Could be considered justifiable because the research findings provided the foundations of treatments of phobias, such as systematic desensitisation. Therefore the societal benefits may actually outweigh the ethical costs.

Question 21

Social sensitivity issue

Answer 21

Involvesstudiesthat have the potential to have a negative impact on specific groups of people or society in general.

Question 22

Socially sensitive Sherief

Answer 22

Classic research in social psychology can be seen as socially sensitive because the topic areas themselves may well exacerbate differences between races and social groups

The research might have had a negative impact on the parents of the boys who showed prejudice behaviour as a result of the findings being published.

That said the research had issues with low control due to being a field study, so findings may not be conclusive

Question 23

Socially sensitive Watson and Rayner

Answer 23

This was seen as socially sensitive as a young child was not protected from harm and may lead to distrust of the field of psychology

That said, the benefit to society as a result of publishing the research led to a greater understanding of how fear develops and then to ways of treating it.

Question 24

Development over time definition

Answer 24

Understanding of how psychology (research and theories) has developed over time

Question 25

Development over time Watson and Rayner

Answer 25

Showed how phobias developed over time with continuous pairing of the loud bang with the white rat.

This led to the development of a huge body of research in Behaviourism, e.g. Skinner who investigated the role of operant conditioning.

It also led to the development of treatments, for example aversion therapy and then systematic desensitisation, based on the principles of classical conditioning.

That said, the study was deemed highly unethical in it’s treatment of Little Albert and the question arises as to whether this can be justified despite the scientific advances it led to.

Question 26

Development over time Sherief

Answer 26

This research demonstrated how prejudice can develop between groups very easily which was useful in explaining prejudice in the wider context.

Sherif went on to show how superordinate goals can be used to reduce prejudice between groups which then was used as an idea to reduce prejudice within classrooms with Aronson’s Jigsaw task

That said, his research was limited in terms of it’s sample with the use of white middle-classed boys.

However, Sherif experienced both Turkish and American cultures so may have interpreted the findings with a more varied understanding of cultural differences.