Question 4

Question 1

Direct Violence:

Answer 1

Direct violence in civil wars typically involves armed confrontations between state military forces and non-state actors, such as rebel groups or insurgents.
In interstate wars, direct violence occurs between the armed forces of two or more sovereign states.
Examples of direct violence in civil wars include battles between government troops and rebel forces, as well as targeted attacks on civilian populations by insurgent groups.
In interstate wars, direct violence manifests as conventional military engagements, such as battles, skirmishes, and artillery bombardments.
The impact of direct violence is immediate and visible, resulting in casualties and destruction in a relatively short timeframe.

Question 2

Indirect Violence:

Answer 2

Indirect violence in civil wars encompasses the broader consequences of conflict, including disruptions to essential services, economic collapse, displacement, and food insecurity.
These indirect effects often result from military operations, such as blockades, sieges, or the destruction of infrastructure, which indirectly harm civilian populations.
In interstate wars, indirect violence may arise from economic sanctions, trade embargoes, or the disruption of international supply chains, leading to food shortages, economic instability, and other indirect consequences for civilian populations.
Unlike direct violence, the effects of indirect violence may not be immediately apparent and can continue to unfold over extended periods, impacting civilian populations even after the cessation of hostilities.

Question 3

Relative impact of each type of violence on causes and volume of civilian wartime deaths:Direct Violence:

Answer 3

Direct Violence:
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In civil wars, direct violence often results in casualties among combatants and civilians alike, as armed groups clash over control of territory or resources.
Civilian deaths caused by direct violence in civil wars may occur during battles, targeted attacks on civilian populations, or indiscriminate bombings by state or non-state actors.
In interstate wars, direct violence leads to casualties primarily among military personnel, although civilian populations may also be affected by airstrikes, artillery barrages, or cross-border attacks.
The volume of civilian deaths from direct violence depends on factors such as the intensity of conflict, military tactics employed, and the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions.

Question 4

Relative impact of each type of violence on causes and volume of civilian wartime deaths:Indirect

Answer 4

Indirect Violence:
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Indirect violence in civil wars exacerbates existing vulnerabilities, such as poverty, food insecurity, and inadequate access to healthcare, leading to increased morbidity and mortality among civilian populations.
Disruption of essential services, such as healthcare and sanitation, can lead to preventable diseases, malnutrition, and other health-related issues, contributing to indirect civilian deaths.
In interstate wars, indirect violence may arise from economic sanctions, trade embargoes, or the destruction of critical infrastructure, leading to economic instability, food shortages, and other indirect consequences for civilian populations.
The long-term consequences of indirect violence, such as environmental degradation or social disintegration, can have profound effects on public health and well-being, extending far beyond the duration of conflict.

Question 5

Changes in the proportion of civilian to military deaths over the past four centuries:

Answer 5

Historically, the proportion of civilian to military deaths in civil and interstate wars has varied significantly depending on factors such as warfare tactics, technological advancements, and societal norms.
Early modern warfare, characterized by battles between professional armies, often resulted in a higher proportion of military deaths compared to civilians.
However, with the advent of industrialized warfare in the 19th and 20th centuries, civilian casualties increased dramatically due to factors such as aerial bombing, artillery shelling, and total war strategies.
The proportion of civilian deaths rose significantly during conflicts such as World War I and World War II, as civilians became increasingly targeted by military forces and suffered collateral damage from strategic bombing campaigns.
In contemporary conflicts, the distinction between civilian and military targets has become increasingly blurred, leading to a higher proportion of civilian casualties.
Factors such as urbanization, guerrilla warfare, and the proliferation of asymmetric tactics have contributed to the rising toll of civilian deaths in modern civil and interstate wars.
In summary, while both direct and indirect violence in civil and interstate wars contribute to civilian deaths, indirect violence often has a more profound and enduring impact on civilian populations, leading to increased morbidity and mortality over extended periods. The proportion of civilian to military deaths has fluctuated over the past four centuries, influenced by factors such as technological advancements, changes in warfare tactics, and shifts in societal norms regarding the treatment of civilians in times of conflict.

Question 6

Indirect structural violence

Answer 6

indirect structural violence of war. These structural causes may include untreated injuries; communicable diseases; famine, starvation, and malnutrition; accidents involved in the displacement, relocation and resettlement of refugees; as well as from exposure and privation resulting from lack of shelter and accommodation.