qualitative research (Definition, characteristics, research methods & analysis)

Question 1

what is a hypothesis?

Answer 1

an assumption, theory or tentative statement based on limited evidence or a relationship between variables which can be tested, verified or falsified

quan not qual

Question 2

what is a qualitative research question?

Answer 2

a (broad) question that seeks to explore experiences and meaning-making of a particular topic (Braun and Clark, 2014)

Question 3

what is a sample?

Answer 3

a selected set of participants recruited to the research from the population or topic under study (Gratton and Jones, 2004)
quan

Question 4

what is data?

Answer 4

the information collected by researchers which they analyse to draw their findings and conclusions (Jones, Holloway and Brown, 2013 p.199)

Question 5

what is research? (Burton and Bartlett, 2009 p.3)

Answer 5

the systematic gathering, presenting and analysing of data

Question 5

what is the general definition of research?

Answer 5

a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical info; and analysis and interpretation of the data/info, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines

develops our critical thinking skills as we learn about what works, what doesn’t work and why

Question 5

what is the purpose of research?

Answer 5

information: acquire new knowledge, find answers, solutions to problems

facilitating change: disrupt and enhance practice, new ways of doing things, improve experiences

ethical issues: prevent harm, reduce waste, improve life conditions, social change

academic mission: interest, profile, contributions, enterprise

Question 5

what are the two types of research?

Answer 5

qualitative - describing or understanding the quality of something

quantitative - measuring, or measured by the quantity of something

influenced by different paradigms - a set of commonly held beliefs and assumptions within a research community

Question 5

what is all research underpinned by?

Answer 5

philosophical ideas about what is real (ontology), how we know things (epistemology) and how we can find things out (methodology)

Question 6

what is quantitative research in general?

Answer 6

• numbers
• emphasis on measurement/counting
• general statements about people as groups
• looks to prove causal relationships
• sets hypotheses
• deductive (testing theory)

Question 6

what is qualitative research in general?

Answer 6

• words/images - meaning
• (usually) no counting
• emphasis on individuals’ experiences and feelings
• no hypotheses
• inductive (builds theory)

Question 7

what are research paradigms?

Answer 7

“all research sets out to find things. some sets out to find universal laws of nature. others embark on a journey to collect stories” (Fryer, 2020 p.9)

Question 8

what is ontology?

Answer 8

the philosophy of knowledge, ‘the study of being’ (Crotty, 1998, p.10)

Question 8

what is epistemology?

Answer 8

philosophical study of how knowledge is acquired, ‘the nature and forms of knowledge’ (Cohen et al., 2007 p.7)

Question 9

what is methodology

Answer 9

the framework that guides decisions about the research approach

Question 9

what are methods?

Answer 9

the tools used to collect data

Question 9

what is constructivism?

Answer 9

multiple truths

reflects the social sciences and is interested in the ways people make sense of their experiences and the world around them

Question 9

what is the ontological position (relativism)?

Answer 9

‘this conceives the social reality as humanly constructed and shaped in ways that make it fluid and multifaceted’ (Sparkers and Smith, 2014 p.11)

Question 9

what is the epistemological position: contructivism?

Answer 9

‘the world does not exist independently of our knowledge of it’ (Grix, 2004 p.91)

multiple realities

Question 9

what are the characteristics of constructivism?

Answer 9

context: ‘the social world can only be understood from the standpoint of individuals who are participating in it’ (Cohen et al., 2007 p.19)

rich detail: interpretivist research makes room for and values all of the complexity that positivist cannot accomodate. It is organic, open-ended and explanatory

researcher role: the researcher is an intrinsic part of research; they are the main instrument so will bring their biases with them which they examine via a process of reflexivity.

Question 10

what is qualitative paradigm?

Answer 10

“what a qualitative paradigm tells us is that useful knowledge can be generated by looking at meaning, with small samples, that the researcher should not theorise themselves as absent or removed from this process. It also locates knowledge as contextual, and always partial and as linked to a particular theoretical and methodological commitments” (Braun and Clarke, 2013 p.33)

Question 10

what is qualitative research?

Answer 10

the most basic definition of qualitative research is that it uses words as data, collected and analysed in all sorts of ways” (Braun and Clark, 2013 p.3)

no clear-cut and all-encompassing definition, reflects its complex nature

Avis (2005) argues each aspect of qualitative research is contested and subject to controversy i.e. what is is, what it’s for, how it’s done and how it’s judged

many authors favour the idea that qualitative research is an umbrella term for a broad, vibrant and diverse collective or camp of researchers and research (Sparkes and Smith, 2014)

Question 10

what did Lincoln (2010) define qualitative research as capturing some of that diversity?

Answer 10

“we are interpretivists, postmodernists, poststructuralists; we are phenomenological, feminist critical. we choose lenses that are border, racial, ethnic, hybrid, queer, differently abled, indigenous, margin, centre, other” (p.8)

leads to richness and elaboration

Question 11

what are qualitative questions?

Answer 11

qualitative research does not seek to test a hypothesis but instead is guided by research questions

research questions allow for the uncovering of rich detail and thick description that capture the subjectivities of human experience

Question 11

what is a quote about qualitative researchers?

Answer 11

qualitative researchers have a wide range of data sources and data collection techniques to draw on, including participant observation, interviews (of various kinds), documentary sources, and visual methods (for example, photography, film) to name a few” (Sparkes and SMith, 2014 p.67)

this means that: as long as your methods align with your research question and with your participants

Question 11

what are the different qualitative methods?

Answer 11

there is no one-way to do qualitative inquiry (denzin & Lincoln, 2005)

different research questions have implications for the ways you collect data

emphasis on accessing opinions, perspectives and authentic (in-process) actions

commonalities in methods used:
interviews, focus groups, observations

Question 11

what are interviews?

Answer 11

Holloway (1997) suggests that the qualitative interview as a conversation with a purpose

two main forms; structured and unstructured

Question 11

what in-depth data can you get from interviews?

Answer 11

• discover how individuals think/feel
• explore their context/experiences
• why they hold certain opinions
• private/confidential conversation

deepen understanding from a person-centred approach

Question 12

what are semi-structured interviews?

Answer 12

• interview schedule - pre-planned questions
• element of structure, but can be flexible, follow-up questions allowed
• greater ‘standardisation’ across interviews
• more researcher control over topics

Question 12

what are unstructured interviews?

Answer 12

• single question - no interview schedule
• participant responds freely
• flexible, naturally occurring data
• conversational in structure
• less researcher control over topics

Question 12

what are focus groups?

Answer 12

focus groups are group interviews where the researcher facilitates the process

“an interview with from four to ten participants, conducted for the purpose of elaborating participants’ perspectives on a given topic” (Ennis and Chen, 2012 p.219)

• originated in market research and is now widely used in social science - akin to semi-structured interviews
• questions around a core aim, but with flexibility to embrace ideas put forward by participants
  room for creativity and can involve tasks to aid engagement e.g. drawing, writing, collage, ranking exercises, to stimulate and focus the discussion

Question 12

evaluation of using focus groups

Answer 12

• focus groups are particularly valuable when conducting research with children and young people
• good explanatory tool for under-researched areas of focus groups do not require any prior research or knowledge
• participants interactions can reveal group dynamics through verbal communication and body language, outside of a focus group such info would often be inaccessible to a researcher

Question 12

what are observations?

Answer 12

“…one of the oldest and most fundamental research methods approaches. This approach involves collecting data using one’s senses, especially looking and listening in a systematic and meaningful way” (McKechnie, 2008 p.573)

• method for describing events, behaviours and artefacts in real-world settings
• observation can mean the researcher takes an ‘outsider view’
• however, participation style of observation is more involved

Question 13

evaluation of observations

Answer 13

• good for understanding real life, not just perceptions about real life - explore context, experience cultures, authentic experiences
• particularly valuable when research is interested in practice - facilitate critical approaches e.g. relating to issues of power, social justice, equity (Thorpe & Olive, 2014)
• may be most effective when used in combination with other approaches e.g. interviews, surveys, focus groups

Question 13

what is the best method?

Answer 13

depends on:
- research question (specific)
-aims of research (broad)
- who your participants are
- your own interests and strengths

Question 13

how does sampling work in qualitative research

Answer 13

“sampling involves making informed and strategic choices about which people, places, settings, events and times are best fro gaining the data you need to address your research questions” (Sparkes and Smith, 2014 p.68)

between 4-40 pps is normal for qualitative studies however it can be more or less and is guided by your research question (Holloway, 1997)

Question 13

what is purposive sampling?

Answer 13

the researcher attempts to recruit people to gain as much information as possible

Question 14

what is theoretical sampling?

Answer 14

constructs a theoretically meaningful sample to help develop or test a theory

Question 15

what is inclusion criteria?

Answer 15

researchers choose individuals who they believe will provide information rich cases, these can be homogenous or people from different contexts - guided by research question

Question 16

what is criterion-based sampling?

Answer 16

predetermined criteria

Question 17

what is snowball sampling?

Answer 17

participants direct the researcher to other participants

Question 18

what is total population sampling?

Answer 18

everyone who is involved with your topic of study

Question 19

what is involved with research quality?

Answer 19

care should be taken in research to ensure the quality of your approach/data

rigour - used to describe the trustworthiness of data
“rigour can be judged in many different ways” (Armour & Macdonald, 2012 p.12)

different criteria needed for qualitative and quantitative research?

parallel concepts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
- reliability, objectivity, validity (quant)
- dependability, confirmability, transferability (qual)

Question 19

what is the ‘big tent’ criteria (Tracy, 2010)?

Answer 19

• worthy topic
• rich rigour
• sincerity
• credibility
• resonance
• significant contribution
• ethical
• meaningful coherence

Question 20

what is an interpretivist underpinning of qual research?

Answer 20

an approach in research whereby reality is considered to be socially constructed and transmitted through ideas, beliefs and social interaction

Interpretivists argue that there is no objective truth (facts) and the world can only be understood by interpreting the information we have available to us (at the time)

Question 21

what is qualitative analysis? (Sparkes and Smith, 2014 p.115)

Answer 21

qualitative analysis is an artful and scientific interpretive process of meaning-making that begins at the outset of the investigation. It involves transcription, data management, immersion in collected data, a concern with what is in the data or how it is constructed, an examination of any possible interrelationships, and reflexive awareness of the process of writing and representation”

Question 22

what is thematic analysis?

Answer 22

• a common approach to analysing qualitative data
• flexible approach - can vary depending on the data generated and theoretical frame
• organises and describes data meaningfully in relation to the research questions
• used for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns in the data (themes)
• identifying and describing explicit and implicit ideas within the data
• requires involvement and interpretation from the researcher

Question 23

what are the uses of thematic analysis?

Answer 23

• understand a pre-determined idea/model
• develop new ideas/theories (inductive)
• explore patterns & meaning emerging or constructed from data
• interpretative - i.e. asks what does the data mean?

Question 24

what are the arguments about emerging themes?

Answer 24

• perhaps oversimplifies the process ignoring the labour that goes into qualitative analysis, losing sight of interpretivist nature of process by saying that themes are just emerging there

alternatives; identified, constructed, generated, developed

Question 25

what are the 6 steps of thematic analysis?

Answer 25

• familiarisation with the data
• generating initial codes
• searching for themes
• reviewing the themes
• defining and naming themes
• writing the report

Question 26

what is the outlined process of thematic analysis by Sparkes and Smith (2014)?

Answer 26

phase 1: immersion in the data (read/re-read transcripts, responses, fieldnotes etc.)

phase 2: generate some initial codes (across the data set), tie into initial research aims

phase 3: identify themes running through the data, sort themes (through coding), create visual map of themes/sub-themes

phase 4: review the themes, examine coherence, look to tell the story of the research through these

Question 27

what is stage 1 - transcription? (Braun and Clarke, 2006)

Answer 27

• transcription - process of converting speech into text for analysis
• transcription should be:
  verbatim - not paraphrased or summarised or in any way ‘doctored’
• partial transcription may be an option in some cases

holistic - recording the words of both researcher and respondent

accurate - a true representation of the conversation

Question 28

what is stage 2 - coding data?

Answer 28

coding - ‘to pull apart’ data
code - description attached to a piece of data which can be later related to a theme

coding helps to:
- systematically identify the patterns in the data
- reduce the data set into manageable ‘chunks’

Question 29

how do we code data?

Answer 29

number of ways including:
- working through texts & marking them up (colours)
- cutting and sorting
- using post-it notes
- writing notes in the margins on the transcripts
- CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software) e.g. Atlas, NVivo
* some critique of software use - still needs researcher engagement, programmes only ‘assisy’ analysis

Question 30

what are the types of codes?

Answer 30

semantic (data-derived) codes:
“data-derived codes provide a succinct summary of the explicit content of the data;they are semantic codes, because they are based in the semantic meaning in the data” (Braun and Clarke, 2013 p.207)

latent (researcher-derived) codes:
“researcher-derived codes go beyond the explicit content of the data; they are latent which invoke the researcher’s conceptual and theoretical frameworks to identify implicit meanings within the data” (Braun and Clarke, 2013 p.207)

Question 31

what are codes and memos?

Answer 31

coding categories to identify key themes, helps to organise data
“coding is a pivotal link between collecting data and developing emergent theory to explain these data. Through coding you define what is happening in the data and begin to grapple with what it means” (Charmaz, 2006 p.44)

continuing and evolving process
- double-back steps, not always linear, more focused over time

memos provide additional explanation
“memo writing leads us to explore codes” (Charmaz, 2000 p.517)
highlight potential links to theory/literature

Question 32

what is stage 3: identifying themes

Answer 32

themes:
- patterns across data sets that are important - theory, aims, RQs
- categorising codes that ‘fit’ together (alignment)
- commonly recurring topic(s) and/or codes

questioning the data:
- are there codes coming up more often than others?
- can some codes be grouped together in a broader category? (e.g. friend, socialising, relationships, being with others = social interaction)
- what are the most important points raised which help us to understand the phenomenon?

Question 33

what is stage 4&5 - reviewing and labelling?

Answer 33

two key concepts ion qualitative analysis:
- constant comparison: process of repeatedly ‘going through’ your data in order to make sense of it. Involves comparing codes to generate common themes.
- thick description: providing enough detail to enable reader to understand the context

Question 34

what questions to ask of your themes in stage 4&5?

Answer 34

• do the themes represent the data and help to make sense of it?
• has anything important been missed?
• is the context present and accountable?
• does the theme label accurately define what the theme is about?

Question 35

what is visual/conceptual mapping?

Answer 35

• condenses large amounts of data
• making sense of codes/memos
• start to see links and patterns - helps give structure
• facilitates the writing process - link in theory, include quotes (from data and literature)
• facilitates understanding for the reader
• can help to clarify ‘storyline’ before writing

Question 36

what is stage 6: interpreting and writing up?

Answer 36

show your working out…
- why is the theme important?
- what does it tell us about the phenomenon?
- what can we learn from it?

quotations from transcripts act as evidence for your theme development
- shows your interpretation of the data

Question 37

what makes good research?

Answer 37

rigour is a term used to describe the trustworthiness in research

“rigour can be judged in many ways, and can helpfully be associated with methodological and theoretical robustness and the use of a systematic approach” (Armour and Macdonald, 2012 p.12)

Question 38

what are parallel concepts noted by Lincoln & Guba (1985)?

Answer 38

quan reliability = qual dependability - to address this; accurate documentation

quan ojectivity=qual confirmability - to address; rigorous documentation, inter-rater reliability, critical friends, post-analysis data audit

quan validity = qual transferability/credibility - to address this; member checks, rich detail, reflexivity, content accuracy, triangulation of methods, prolonged engagement