qualitative research Flashcards
1
Q
credibility in qualitative research
A
In a similar fashion, credibility in qualitative
research is related to the question, “To what
extent do the ndings reect the reality?” If a true
picture of the phenomenon under study is being
presented, the study is credible.
2
Q
methods of ensuring credibility in qualittaive research
A
- triangulation
-estbalishing a rapport
-iterative questioing
-reflexivity
-credibility checks
-“thick descriptions”
3
Q
triangulation
A
Triangulation refers to a multitude of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data, all of which may culminate to enhance the credibility of a study
types of triangulation
-method triangulation
-data triangulation
-researcher triangulation
-theory triangulation
4
Q
data triangulation
A
-Refers to using data from a variety of accessible sources
-Supports observations, boosting credibility
5
Q
method triangulation
A
-Involves using different methods in combination in order to compensate for their individual limitations and reinforce their strengths
-If the same results are obtained using various methods, credibility increases
6
Q
theory triangulation
A
-Refers to using multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data
-If multiple angles and theories prove the same point or confirm the same findings, credibility increases
6
Q
researcher traingulation
A
-Involves to combining observations and interpretations of different researchers
-Additional insights help researchers gain a deeper understanding of the phenomena at hand
7
Q
establishing a rapport
A
Researching must be sure that their participants are being honest in their responses, this can be achieved by:
Reminding participants about voluntary participation and their right to withdraw is they deem it necessary. This makes it so that response are only derived from participants who are willing to contribute
Establishing good rapport with participants eliminates the probability of demand characteristics, by emphasizing the validity of all responses
7
Q
iterative questioning
A
In research projects observing sensitive data, there is a risk that participants will distort data eitehr intentionally or unintentionally, in an attempt to craft a particular image with the researcher
Spotting sort of behaviour involves searching for ambiguous answers and it is usually overcome by returning to the topic later, now rephrased. Allowing researchers to gain deeper insight on more sensitive topics
7
Q
reflexivity
A
Reflexivity refers to the ability of researchers to reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have tainted the observations or interpretations made throughout the course of the project, which inevitable in qualitative research due to the nature of the field
8
Q
types of reflexivity
A
-epistomolgical reflexivity:
Refers to the knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses of the method used to collect data in the research
-personal reflexivity
Refers to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher
8
Q
thick descriptions
A
Refers to explaining:
The observed behaviour
The context on which the behaviour manifested
This is done to ensure the description becomes meaningful to an outside observer who has not experienced the researched phenomena first-hand
9
Q
acquiescence bias
A
Acquiescence bias is a tendency to give
positive answers whatever the question. Some
people are acquiescent by nature, and in some
others acquiescence may be induced by the
nature of the questions or the researcher’s
behaviour. To avoid this bias, researchers
should be careful not to ask leading questions,
making their questions open-ended, neutral
and focused on the opinions of the participant.
9
Q
credibility checks
A
Involves checking the accuracy of data by asking the participants to read transcripts of data collection processes they were involved in and confirm that their accuracy in representing what they intended their responses to mean
10
Q
social desirability bias
A
- Social desirability bias is participants’ tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them liked or accepted.
- Participants may guess the aim of the study and try to look
better than they really are. This may be done intentionally or unintentionally. - Research into sensitive topics is especially vulnerable to socialdesirability.
- To reduce this bias, questions should be phrased in a non-judgmental way that suggests that any answer is acceptable.
- Another trick that researchers use is to ask questions
about a third person. This helps
participants to disengage from the sensitive topics and provide more honest answers.
11
Q
dominnat respondent bias
A
- Dominant respondent bias occurs in a group interview setting when one of the participants inuences the behaviour and responses
of the others. - Dominant respondents may
“hijack” talking time or intimidate others by
demonstrating their assertiveness or superior
knowledge of the subject. - Researchers should
be trained to keep dominant respondents in check and make sure that all participants are provided with equal opportunities to speak and
are in a safe and comfortable environment to voice their opinions.
12
Q
sensitivity bias
A
- Sensitivity bias is a tendency of participants to answer regular questions honestly, but
distort their responses to questions on sensitive
subjects. - They may even give incorrect
information to hide secrets. - The solution to this problem is to build a good rapport with
each participant and create trust between the participant and the researcher. To build trust, the researcher needs to behave professionally, make ethical guidelines regarding issues such as condentiality absolutely clear to the participant and increase the sensitivity of the questions gradually while being responsive to the participant’s concerns.
13
Q
confirmation bias
A
- Conrmation bias occurs when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the
research in an unintentional attempt to conrm that belief. - Conrmation bias may
inuence the way questions are worded, the small nuances in the researcher’s non-verbal
behaviour, and selectivity of attention while observing behaviour or interpreting the data. - Information that supports the prior belief is attended to, while information that contradicts
it is disregarded. - Reexivity is the solution to
conrmation bias. - Conrmation bias is such a
deeply grounded error in human information
processing that it is largely unavoidable in qualitative research where data can only be collected “through” a human observer. - So rather than avoiding it, researchers should be trained to recognize it and take it into account.
-If the possibility of bias is recognized, research
can then be repeated with another observer to
corroborate the ndings (or not).
14
Q
leading questions bias
A
- Leading questions bias occurs when respondents in an interview are inclined to
answer in a certain way because the wording
of the question encourages them to do so. - Interviewers should be rigorously trained in
asking open-ended, neutral questions that do not suggest a particular answer. - Also they should avoid paraphrasing the participant’s
response to make sure they understood it correctly. - Questions should be worded in the participant’s own language.
15
Q
question order bias
A
- Question order bias occurs when responses to one question inuence the participant’s responses to the following questions.
- This bias stems from the human tendency to be
consistent in our beliefs and actions. - To minimize this
bias, general questions should be asked before more specic ones, positive questions before
negative ones, and behaviour questions before attitude questions.
16
Q
sampling bias
A
- Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research.
- Also there are “professional participants” who look for opportunities to take part in
research that provides nancial incentives for participation. - Although they can be accessed quickly and recruited easily, samples consisting entirely of “professional participants” should be used with caution.
17
Q
biased reporting
A
Biased reporting occurs when some ndings
of the study are not equally represented in the
research report.Reexivity, integrity
and training of researchers are the means to
counteract biased reporting.
18
Q
sampling in qualitative research
A
- However, sampling in qualitative research is non-probabilistic.
- Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which subjects are selected through non-random methods. Non-probability sampling allows researchers to deliberately select subjects based on their own judgment or criteria.
19
Q
quota sampling
A
-In quota sampling it is decided prior to the start of research how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have.
- This decision is driven by the research question
- Using various recruitment strategies,
researchers then recruit participants until the
quotas are met.
- Quota sampling is similar to stratied sampling in quantitative research in that both the important participant characteristics and the necessary sample proportions are pre-dened.
20
purposive sampling
- This is similar to quota sampling in the sense that the main characteristics of participants are dened in advance and then researchers recruit participants who have these characteristics.
- However, the proportions and the sample size
are not dened.
21
theoretical sampling
-This is a special type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation is reached.
-Data saturation means that no new information is obtained from new participants added to the sample.
- Whether information is “new” or not is dened
on the basis of a background theory: if no new
evidence (or counterevidence) for the claims of
the theory emerges, data saturation is reached.
- Generalization in this case is made from the
data to the theory.
22
snowball sampling
- In this approach a small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who also are of interest for the purposes of the research.
- This approach is mostly used when there are insufcient resources to carefully select participants or in research with groups of people who are very difcult to reach
22
convenience sampling
The most supercial approach where you just use the sample that is easily available or accessible
23
theorectical generalisation
- Generalization is made from particular observations to a broader theory.
- In quantitative research theoretical generalization takes the form of construct validity
- In qualitative research theoretical generalization is achieved through rigorous analysis and interpretation of research findings:
-we can generalize to a wider theory if data saturation was achieved, thick descriptions provided, analysis was in-depth and free of biases, and so on. Theory plays a much greater role in qualitative research than in quantitative.
23
observation
● The focus of the research is on how people
interact, interpret each other’s behaviour and
act upon these interpretations in a natural
setting.
● The researcher believes that meaningful
knowledge in the research area cannot be
generated without observation,
● Observation allows the researcher to
become immersed deeply into the studied
phenomenon, sometimes even becoming part
of it. Arguably, this is a strength because you
gain almost rst-hand experiences.
● Observation is “experiential” and the researcher is strongly involved in the process of data generation.
● All generated data is the product of his or her
selective attention and interpretations. This makes reexivity especially important.
24
case-to-case generalisation / transferabilitiy
- Generalization is made to a different group of people or a different setting or context.
- In qualitative research transferability is the responsibility of both the researcher and the reader of the research report.
- The researcher’s responsibility is to ensure that thick descriptions are provided so that the reader has sufcient information and details about the context of the study.
- The reader’s responsibility is to decide whether or not the context described in quantitative research would probably be “ecological validity”
24
sample-to-sample generalisation
- The researcher starts by identifying the target
population and then selects a sample that is
representative of this population.
- The best approach to achieve this is to use random sampling.
- The concept that is used to describe sample-to-population generalizability in experiments is “population validity”
- Due to the non-probabilistic nature of samples in qualitative research, this type of generalization is difcult.
25
labratory versus naturalistic observation
- Naturalistic observation is carried out
in naturally occurring settings, that is, a
place that has not been arranged for the
purposes of the study.
- A drawback is that it may be time-consuming because the behaviour of interest only occurs at certain times.
26
participant observation
- In this method the observer becomes part of the observed group.
- The advantage of participant observations is that they allow the researcher to gain rst-hand experiences with the phenomenon of interest, gaining valuable insights.
- However, the drawbacks include the risk that the observer will lose objectivity as he or she becomes too involved with the studied
group of individuals.
- This may happen because the researcher begins to identify himself or herself with the group.
-Of course, there is also the ethical issue: if participants do not realize that one of the members of their group is in fact an observer collecting information, this may be ethically questionable, especially in sensitive research topics.
27
sructured vs unstructures observation
- In structured observation information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way.
- Unstructured observations do not have a pre-dened structure and observers simply register whatever behaviours they nd noteworthy.
-Note that structured observation operates with numbers rather than text, which may be sufcient to say that structured observation is a quantitative research method. However, it is still idiographic rather than nomothetic
28
interview advtanges
● This may be the only way to get an insight
into the nature of subjective experiences
and interpretations.
● Interviews may be used to understand the
meanings participants attach to certain events
and their points of view. Again, this is not
directly achievable by most other methods.
● In-depth individual interviews are useful when
the topic is too sensitive for people to discuss in
a group setting.
29
types of interviews
-structured
-semi-strcutured
-unstructured
30
structured interview
- Structured interviews include a xed list
of questions that need to be asked in a xed
order.
-It is most useful when the research
project involves multiple interviewers and it is
essential that they all conduct the sessions in a
similar way.
-This allows many participants to be
interviewed and some comparisons to be made
31
semi-structured interviews
- Semi-structured interviews do not specify an
order or a particular set of questions. They are
somewhat like a checklist: the researcher knows
that certain questions must be asked, but beyond that he or she can ask follow-up questions to get clarications.
- If it better ts the natural ow of the conversation, the researcher can change the question order. Semi-structured interviews are better suited for smaller research projects, but they are also more effective in studying the unique experiences of each participant.
32
unstructured interviews
- Unstructured interviews are mostly
participant-driven, and every next question
is determined by the interviewee’s answer to
the previous one.
- the researcher still has to keep in mind the overall purpose of the research and stay focused on exploring a particular topic. However, two different interviewees may end up getting very different questions.
33
focus group
The focus group is a special type of semi-structured interview that is conducted simultaneously with a group of 6–10 people. The key factor is that participants are encouraged to interact with each other and the interviewer serves as a facilitator.
34
content analysis
the most widely used method to analyse texts produced by particpants whilst balancing description and interpretation is inductive content analysis which minimisies researcher bias and is systematic and rigorous.
35
case study
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an
individual or a group.
reasons why they are referred to as separate research methods
● The individual or group that is the object of a
case study is unique in some way. As a result,
the purpose is to gain a deep understanding of
this particular individual or group.
● Sampling is not an issue: you are interested in
this particular case, not the population this case
“represents”.
● There is less focus on generalizability. Findings
do get generalized, but this is a by-product
of the in-depth description and explanation
of the case (case-to-case and theoretical
generalization).
● The case is studied thoroughly, using a
combination of different methods, and often
longitudinally. This is why we dened a case
study as an “in-depth investigation”.
36
ethical considerations
- informed consent
-protection from harm
-anonymity and confidentiality
- withdrawal from participation
-deception
-debriefing
37
cost-benefit analysis
Very often ethical decisions prior to conducting a study are not easy, and a cost-benet analysis
needs to be conducted.
● if potentially the study can reveal scientic
information that will benet a lot of people
● if there is no way the study of a phenomenon
can be conducted without relaxing an ethical
standard.
38
ethical considerations in reportng the results
- data fabrication
-plagiarism
-publicatoin credit - (Authorship on a
publication should accurately reect the
relative contributions of all the authors.)
- sharing research data for verification
-handing sensitive personal info
-handling info obtained in genetic research
- handling info related to mental disorders
-social implications of reporting scientisifc results
39
advantages and disadvanatges of case studies
advantages:
1. case studies are useful to investigate
phenomena that could not be studied otherwise.
2. case studies can contradict established
theories and help develop new theories.
disadvantages:
1. Researcher bias can be a problem as, due to the longitudinal nature of the study, researchers might get too involved.
2. Participant bias is also a potential problem for the same reason: the participant interacts with the researcher for a long period and it is easier for the participant to become susceptible to acquiescence, social desirability,etc.
3. The generalization of ndings is
especially problematic from a single case to other settings or to a wider population. Generalization depends on thickness of descriptions and triangulation
40
ethical limitations of case studies
- anonymity
and condentialit
- it is difcult to preserve
anonymity of unique cases.
- In case studies of
patients with brain damage it may be difcult to obtain informed consent because they might not fully realize the terms of the document.
41
inductive content analysis
1. writing the transcript either verbatim or post-modern (notes on intonation gestures and other non verbal elements)
2. reading the raw material several times and identifying initial themes. done iteratively. indepdent coders are used to check the credibility of deriving low level themes form the text
3. low level themes are grouped in a smaller number of high level themes (involves interpretation and so other researcher usually get involved) results in a manageable set of high level meaningful units that summarise the transcript
4. a summary table of the themes is prepared with high level themes, their low level themes and quotations from the raw transcript. data saturation is reached when subsequent reading of the transcript do not lead to identifying any new themes
5. fnially, conclusions are formulated based on the summary table that link emergent themes to the theory. particpant ccredibility checks may be used
42
advantages of a focus group
● It is a quick way to get information from
several participants at the same time.
● It creates a more natural and comfortable
environment than a face-to-face interview,
ensuring less participant bias.
● It is easier to respond to sensitive questions
when you are in a group.
● Multiple perspectives are discussed so a
more holistic understanding of the topic is
achieved.
43
disadvantages of a focus group
● If one of the participants is especially dominant, this may distort the responses of the other participants (for example, if they feel a need to conform), and it is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that each participant contributes freely to the conversation.
● It is more difcult to preserve anonymity and
condentiality.
● Focus groups are especially demanding in terms
of sampling and creating interview transcripts.
44
interview data
Interview data comes in the form of an audio or
video recording which is subsequently converted
to an interview transcript. Sometimes data
also includes interview notes, accompanying
observations about the participant and the
interview context. Transcripts are later coded and analysed in line with the aims of the research.
45
overt observation
- Overt observation occurs when participants are
aware of the fact that they are being observed.
-very ethical
-methodological imitations like partiicpant expectations biases
46
covert observations
- covert observation the researcher does not inform the members of the group about the reasons for his or her presence.
- An advantage of covert observation is gaining access to groups that would not normally agree to participate in research
- Another strength is the avoidance of participant bias—subjects do not know they are being observed, so they behave naturally.
- The ethics here are a disadvantage. Participants
do not give their consent to take part in the
study.
47
ethical considerations in conducting the study
1) informed consent
2) protection from harm
3) anonymity and confidentiality
4) withdrawal from participation
5) deception
6) debriefing
48
cost-benefit analysis
an analysis that is usually conducted by an ethics committee on two factors:
- if potentially the study can reveal scientific information that will benefit a lot of people
- if there is no way the study of a phenomenon can be conducted without relaxing an ethical standard
49
ethical considerations in reporting the results
1) data fabrication
2) plagiarism
3) publication credit
4) sharing research data for validation
5) handling of sensitive information
-handling of information obtained from genetic research
-handling of information related to mental disorders
6) social implications of reporting scientific results
