Qualitative Research Flashcards
What is abductive reasoning?
Proposed as a way of overcoming the limitations associated with deductive and inductive positions.
Abductive logic is based on the pragmatist perspective→ starts with a puzzle/surprise and then seeks to explain it. Seeking to identify the conditions that would make the phenomenon less puzzling → back-and-forth engagement with the social world as an empirical source for theoretical ideas, and with the literature, in a process of ‘dialectical shuttling’. The researcher selects the ‘best’ explanation from competing explanations/interpretations of the data → acknowledges the importance of cognitive reasoning in theory building. Related to hermeneutics (the study of interpretation) → understanding is seen as a continous dialogue between the data and the researcher’s preunderstandings. Crucial in enabling the researcher to remain open to the possibility of being surprised by the data, rather than using it to confirm their preunderstandings.
Inductive research
This involves theory being developed in a ‘data-driven manner’ using qualitative data, often taking a grounded theory approach.
What are the three main research approaches?
(1) Grounded Theory Approach
(2) Ethnographic Approach
Data driven research - Induction (mainly)
(3) Hermeneutic approach
Discursive. Data and Theory – Abduction (mainly)
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research s a research strategy that emphasizes
qualification rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data:
* relationship between theory and research in which the emphasis is placed on the generation of theories;
* emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret their social world;
* takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting emergent property of individuals’ creation.
* Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist epistemology)
* Emphasis on words/text/pictures/visual, ect rather than numbers
What are the two different type of concepts in qualitative research?
Definitive concepts:
* Indicators ‘fix’ the concept;
* What phenomena have in common becomes more important than their variety.
* Definitive concepts are are defined in a fairly narrow, precise and clear manner. They give very clear prescriptions of what to look for in a research situation.
Activist Brand is a defining concept that I can use to sum up the findings or my research. Thus I use it to present result.
Sensitizing concepts:
* A general sense of reference and guidance, allows the discovery of varied forms of phenomena, capable of being gradually narrowed down.
Brand community is a sensitizing concept which I will use to make sense of the data collection which can be done via qualitative methods. Thus I use it to collect data. DEPENDS ON HOW I USE THE CONCEPTS, THEY CAN ALSO BE USED THE OTHER WAY AROUND.
The hundreds of our concepts—like culture, institutions, social structure, mores, and personality—are not definitive concepts but are sensitizing in nature.
Definitive concepts provide prescriptions of what to see, sensitizing concepts merely suggest directions along which to look.
In qualitative research concepts are build to
* Offer an explanation of specific phenomena under study as results of a research
* Or used as starting point of research
Criticism of qualitative research
Too subjective
Researcher decides what to focus on
Difficult to replicate
Unstructured format
Problems of generalization
Samples not ‘representative’ of all cases
Lack of transparency
Often unclear what researcher actually did
What is an Unit of Analysis?
A person, organization, document, picture etc.
Units of Analysis become materialized into Data/Material (through for example interviews).
Research Questions should give an indication of what units needs to be sampled.
Purposive (Theoretical) Sampling
Qualitative Research
Sampling is conducted with reference to the goals of the research.
A non-probability form of sampling.
Not seeking to sample research participants on a random basis.
Ongoing process: collecting, coding and analysing data, deciding where to look next (purposive sampling) and developing grounded theory
Theoretical saturation point: when categories and concepts are dense enough; no more data collection is needed.
Snowball sampling
* Convenience sampling approach
* Researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others.
* Problem: unlikely to represent the whole population.
* Potential validity problems?
Used usually in Etnographic Approach but also in others
Used usually in both Grounded Approach and Hermeneutics
Probability Sampling
Quantitative Research
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.
(1) Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
(2) Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
(3) Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
(4) Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups. Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Etnography
Both a method and a written product of research (data analysis).
Understanding the culture, norms and values of groups.
Possible technices: “Hanging around”, shadowing, and general conversations at work-breaks
All require permission and authorization in advance for the researcher to be present.
Offering something in exchange (for example a report) could be helpful.
Single or multi-site ethnographic study (one shop or different shops)
Gatekeepers are individuals, groups, or organisations who have control or influence over a researcher’s access to participants.
Netnography
Netnography is a research method useful for studying online consumer culture. By observing naturally occurring discussions and phenomena on the internet, it seeks to unpack the cultural codes and expressions that influence consumption choices within the communities under study.
Visual Ethnography
Ethnography is the study and interpretation of social organisations and cultures in everyday life. It is a research-based methodology, and when this research is conducted using photography, video or film, it is called visual ethnography.
Focus Groups
A form of group interview. Several participants and one moderator. Study individuals in a social context. Discussion on specific issue. Similar to brainstorming.
Study interactions between members in a group, how opinions are expressed and modified through group discussions.
To examine the way people (collectively) construct and organize knowledge. To understand why people hold certain views (participants probe and challenge each other).
Findings VS Results
Findings is used more in Qualitative Research
Results is used more in Quantitative Research
But are similar:
It shows what is obtained from data collection
In Quantitative Research it is “pure” results (scores from survey)
In Qualitative Research it is not “pure” results. Always a degree of interpretation! (Most of the time this section is where categories/themes emerging from the process are presented)
Findings VS Analysis
Depends on the Methods used (eg.Grounded approach vs others types)
Finding - a presentation of data coded (thus reduction and re-packaging of data) based on categories/themes
Analysis- explanation of what the data collected means (often includes a theory or theoretical framework to make sense)
