Qualitative Data Collection Flashcards
What are the main aims of qualitative research?
- Exploratory questions - looks at meaning, attitudes, and experiences.
- Mainly produces non-numerical data
- Can generate or contribute to hypotheses, theories and explanatory models
- Flexible and open approach, (rather than standardised and chronological), exploratory so helpful when no hypothesis to be tested
- Data analysis occurs concurrently with collection
- Complementary to quantitative or “stand-alone”
What are the main methods of qualitative research?
- Observation
- Interviews
- Focus groups/group interviews
- Recording of natural talk
- Analysis of pictures and text
What are the core orientations (theoretical approaches) of qualitative research
Interpretivism - looks at how people understand events and phenomena. Recognises different understandings as possible and legitimate. Multiple social realities. Role of researcher is to describe and interpret. (eg. reasons for non-adherence to treatment.
Naturalism - Studying social behaviour in the context in which it “naturally” occurs. Understands behaviour as contextual so researchers should try to study behaviour in natural settings. Can inform real world implementation and challenges.
EXAMPLE: Patient administration of asthma medication
Explain the uses of qualitative interviewing and name its core typologies
- To provide in-depth information/rich insights into how people experience or understand phenomena, knowledge and beliefs
- Structured: standardised and pre-dertermined questions. Aims to produce standardised data from all respondents for comparison, generalisable to the whole population. Does not allow for probing or exploration - very specific.
- Semi-Structured: uses topic guide with list of questions to cover and prompts. Used when looking at specific questions about an issues but allows for greater exploration and understanding. Questions can be rephrased to suit respondents. Can probe.
Allows for balance between structured and unstructured approaches - similar data for comparison, but can gain additional information. - In-Depth: use of broad topic guide. Allows for more in-depth and detailed information. Often used when unsure of specific questions to be asked. Very exploratory.
Describe how rapport and context are important for interviewing
A good relationship should be developed with interviewees so they can relax and share stories without feeling judged.
- eye contact
- non-verbal indicators
- follow-up
- no interrupting
- not providing opinions or disagreement
Name and briefly describe the different types of group interviews
Key advantage of group interviews is ability to gain insights from interaction between participant, method for greater participation, can sometimes provide in-depth data but can be limited and biased.
- Focus groups: Group of people (8-12) selected who meet sampling criteria (eg. knowledge or characteristic). Brought together to discuss a topic, guided and recorded by facilitators (audio-taped and transcribed). Formal and controlled.
- Stimulus materials open-ended, related to topic
- Used to test health promotion material or explore service user views
- Natural group: focus group where participants are known to each other, group exists outside/independently of the research setting. Often opportunistic.
- Can be formal or informal - topic guide loosely followed, can be written notes or audio-taped
- Used for: ethnographic data or social research.
- Community Interview: open to large segments of the community. Written notes.
- Used for program planning and evaluation or as a forum to provide information and discussion.
- Consensus group: brings together participants with explicit aim of decision-making. Often involves informants of experts to help make policy and research decisions.
- Stimulus materials more narrow and closed.
- Used for: clinical protocols and resource prioritisation
Explain how consensus groups can be organised
- Dephi method - does not meet, questionnaire and summary collated for revision to create consensus (cycle)
- Nominal - viewpoint listed, discussed and voted. Votes statistically analysed.
- Consensus Development Conference - open meeting, discussion prior to consensus. Often hear evidence from experts.
Name some considerations required when undertaking focus groups/group interviews
- Sampling (strategies used) and recrutiment
- Topic Guide (how is it structured, what is included)
- Facilitation -> Appropriately trained, language, Social, cultural and political context; Hierarchies and power dynamics, appropriate moderator
- Ethics and Follow-up
- Location and timing (comfortable, accessible etc)
- Resources (for interview, recording, compensation)
Describe ethical considerations required in interview situations
- Confidentiality
- Avoidance of harm
- Reciprocity and feedback of results (as appropriate)
Topic Guide - for Focus Groups
Structure - Intro (and ice-breaker); general questions, prompts and probes, summary.
Intro should include info about the process and confidentiality etc.
Questions should be open, neutral and simply worded to generate useful data Five key types of questions: - experiences - attitudes to experiences - others experiences and attitudes - likes and dislikes about service - what could be improved
Summary - ensure nothing is missing, thanks provided.
Topic guides and development of questions - for interviews
Key element is developing the right questions to ask - considering the best way to elicit responses that will generate useful data
Considerations/rules:
- Start with general questions (orient respondent and researcher)
- Open-ended questions
- Neutral questions, non-judgemental
- Appropriate everyday vocabulary (eg. medical terms not well understood)
- Avoid abstract questions and use concrete examples (lived experience rather than hypothetical situation)
- Can use alternative questions for deeper understanding/different responses: diary questions, critical incidents, free listing and ranking.
How can qualitative interviews contribute to understanding health care?
Historical Research
- Life History interviews
- Key Informant interviews
- Witness Seminars
Medical Anthropology
- Ethnographic Research
- Explanatory model of illness
Sociological Research
- Often combined with observation
- Provide insights into how people perceive and understand things (can be different to how they act - observed behaviours) an important dimension to understand.
Describe in more depth the use of interviews in historical research
Life History interviews
- used to reconstruct the experience of people who do not always appear in historical documentary sources.
- documents a respondent’s life (or part of it)
- Contributes to the social history of medicine and public health.
- EXAMPLE: studies completed on the role of community pharmacists in Britain
Key Informant interviews
- interviews with people who have played a key role in events
- EXAMPLE: decision makers on key health policies, a scientific discover etc.
Witness Seminars
- Participants have been involved in a particular set of events which are discussed as a group, recorded and transcribed. Interaction between participants helps with data generation.
EXAMPLE: Inequality in health, response to an outbreak
LIMITATIONS of historical research:
- Timeframe impacts who is available
- Re-call bias
Describe in more depth the use of interviews in medical anthropology
- Can use different types of observation in the same study
- Often used to inform other data collection instruments
Ethnographic Research
- conducted in unstructured and in-depth formats.
- Long-term and frequent contact.
- Often matches what people say and do via observation
EXAMPLE: feeding practices in households to examine malnutrition
Explanatory model of illness
- Explanatory models are a systematic set of knowledge, beliefs and attitudes in regard to a particular illness that helps to explain the illness and treatments to guide choices and add personal and social meaning.
- They can be developed by collecting a number of illness narratives (includes patterns of resort, and perception of symptoms, treatment and outcome) to elicit responses about the experience of patients.
- Gives more subjective understanding
EXAMPLE: Cancer patients
Describe ‘patterns of resort’
A person’s approach to health-seeking behaviours. Includes the ways they navigate through popular, folk and professional sectors of the medical system in search of treatment and relief. Used in illness narratives and explanatory models of illness.
EXAMPLE: Any disease or illness and how people may seek care.
