Qm Flashcards
what is the essence of science?
explaining natural phenomna through general rules and theories
what are the four methods of knowing?
- method of tenacity: clinging to a belief, because it has always been true
- method of authority: established belief, like religion
- a priori method: a priori propositions, “agree with reason”
- method of science: self correction, objectivity. its fundamental hypothesis: there are real things, whose characters are entirely independent or our opinions about them.
what are the two kinds of self selection
comparison groups: S’s are selected because they are in one or another group cancer/ no cancer
samples: selection in non random fashion
limitations of ex post facto research?
1) inability to manipulate independent variables
2) lack of power to randomize
3) risk of improper interpretation
advice ex post facto research
- ignore results of ex post facto research without hypotheses
- be skeptical about ex post facto research that only has one hypothesis
- be careful with results and interpretations of ex post facto research
laboratory experiment
research in a physical situation apart from the outside world, in which the variance of extraneous independent variables is kept at a minimum. One or more independent variables are carefully manipulated under controlled conditions.
Purpose:
- Discover relations under ‘pure’ circumstances
- Test predictions derived from theory and exploratory research
- Refine theories, formulate hypotheses
Strengths:
- High internal validity ceteris paribus (“all other things being e qual”)
- Easy to manipulate independent variables
- Complete control; minimal error variance
- Elimination of extraneous influences
Weaknesses:
- Lack of strength of independent variables due to artificiality of the research situation
- Lack of external validity/representativeness
Field experiment
: research in a realistic situation in which the independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions as the situation will permit.
Strengths:
- Stronger variables due to the more realistic situation
- Flexible; widely applicable
- Lifelike setting high external validity
Weaknesses:
- Manipulation of independent variables
- Randomization
- Lack of precision
- Social obstacles
Field study
ex post facto scientific inquiry aimed at discovering relations and interactions among variables. Tests hypotheses in life situations. Very limited to no manipulation of independent variables.
Two types: exploratory and hypothesis-testing
Purpose of exploratory field studies: 1) discover significant variables in the field; 2) discover relations among variables; 3) lay groundwork for later testing of hypotheses.
Strengths:
- Strong in realism
- Social significance
- Strength of variables
- Theory orientation
- Heuristic quality
Weaknesses:
- Ex post facto character, thus relations are weaker
- No internal validity
- Lack of precision in measurement of variables (construct validity)
- High costs; sampling; time.
experimenters dilemma
Human subjects (s) respond differently in different kind of experimental settings to different types of experimenters (E) with different kinds of approaches
- Because human subjects are aware that they are being experimented on, they may modify their “normal” behaviour
- human subjects must be obtained by some selection method, which may affect the representativeness of the sample, especially when some types of Ss are included and others are excluded.
- expediencies, hypotheses and/or biases may be communicated to the Ss in some fashion. even if this is unintentionally, this source of bias reduces the validity of experimental findings.
- often, the alternatives for a less biased experimental setting are equally undesirable
experiments as seen by Es
a method for obtaining answers to questions which he is studying. Experimental situation in one in which E does not trust S and has to keep him as naïve and ignorant as possible about the purposes of the experiment
experiments as seen by Ss
generally cooperative. S is aiding science. can be pressured into volunteering. attempts to decipher the secret purpose of the experiment, such an attitude is natural but can cause difficulties for E.
the major views held by psychologists on the nature of attitudes of Ss in experiments
- Riecken (1962): S wants to put his “best foot forward” and tries to figure out the purpose of the experiment in order to 19ai)d science.
- Orne (1962): S is cooperative and eager to be a “good” S so as to please E. He attempts to determine the purpose of the experiment and acts in accord with various cues or demand characteristics of the situation which tip him of as to what is correct behavior.
- Rosenberg (1965): S is anxious about the impression he makes he makes since ha assumes he is being evaluated. This apprehension leads him to behave in whatever manner he believes will put him in the best light.
Fillenbaum (1966): S is “faithful” and follows instructions, without attempting to secondguess or outsmart E.
Masling (1966): sometimes S will resist the attempts of E to study him: he may even be uncooperative or deliberately behave in unusual ways.
Argyris (1968) S may resist, become hostile or apathetic, or even fail to show up because experiments contain unintended side effects due to their rigorous control of the situation.
Sigall, Aronson and Van Hoose (1970) S is primarily concerned about his own image, not the goals of E. If the goals of S and E are not compatible, S will behave in his own self-interest.
Dulaney (1962) S will do what he thinks E want him to do, provided S wants to do it.
Hawthorne effect
In an experiment where Es were identifying optimal working conditions, it appeared that all workers showed production improvement, no matter what environmental changes were created. the workers were responding to the observation process itself and behaving in ways atypical of work under natural conditions.
According to Bell, volunteers in general
- are higher in need for social approval
- especially males are more intelligent
- tend to have more unconventional personalities
- often tend to be first-borns
- for certain experiments are less well adjusted
- tend to have higher need for achievement
active effect of sex
the possibility that Ss respond differently to Es of different sexes because they are actually treated differently by male and female Es.
