PY1103 - Intro to Cardiorespiratory Physiotherapy Flashcards
1
Q
WEEK 1
A
Module introduction
2
Q
What makes up the upper respiratory tract
A
Nose (mouth), Pharynx and Larynx
3
Q
What makes up the lower respiratory tract
A
Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli
4
Q
what 3 parts is the pharynx split into
A
nasopharynx (air), oropharynx (air+ food), Laryngopharynx (air+ food, site of bijurication)
5
Q
larynx functions/ facts
A
larynx is protected form food by Epiglottis that closes over the larynx during swallowing, contains vocal cords (essential for effective cough)
6
Q
What 3 parts are the Bronchi split into
A
Primary (main), Secondary (lobar), Tertiary (segmental)
7
Q
what 2 zones are the bronchioles split up into
A
Conducting zone, Respiratory zone
8
Q
where does the trachea descend from and to
A
from larynx into the thorax (situated anteriorly to the oesophagus)
9
Q
what are the different parts of bronchi
A
Right and Left primary bronchi, Secondary (lobar) bronchi, Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
10
Q
what is the structure of the left and right main bronchi
A
R - branches off at 20-30 degrees, wider and shorter than L
L - branches off at 45-55 degrees
11
Q
what is the structure and function of the secondary and tertiary bronchi
A
secondary - main bronchi divides into secondary bronchi, Right = 3 and L = 2, supply each lobe of the lung
Tertiary - Secondary bronchi divide into tertiary bronchi, Right = 10 L = 9, supply each segment of the lung
12
Q
where does gaseous exchange occur
A
Alveoli of lungs
13
Q
what are the branches of the lungs
A
Trachea - Primary Bronchus - Bronchial Tree, Terminal Bronchi - Bronchioles - terminal bronchioles - respiratory bronchioles
14
Q
what are the lobes of the right lung (3)
A
upper/superior, middle, lower/inferior
15
Q
what are the lobes of the left lung (2)
A
upper/ superior, lower/inferior
(smaller due to position of heart)
16
Q
what are the right and left lung lobes divided by
A
fissures: (right - oblique and horizontal) (left - oblique)
17
Q
what covers the lungs
A
pleural membrane (pleura)
18
Q
what is the outer layer of the pleura called
A
parietal pleura - lines inner surface of the thoracic wall and superior surface of the diaphragm
19
Q
what is the inner pleura layer called
A
visceral pleura - covers the outer surface of the lungs and lines the fissures
20
Q
what is the space between the outer and inner pleura layers called
A
pleural cavity - contains pleural fluid
21
Q
functions of pleural fluid
A
acts as a lubricant allowing the layers to glide over each other during inspiration and expiration, increases surface tension/ locks 2 pleural layers together
22
Q
what makes up the thoracic cage
A
ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebra
23
Q
how many pairs of ribs are there
A
12 pairs in total: pairs 1-7 (true ribs) articulate with vertebra and sternum,
pairs 8-10 (False ribs) articulate with vertebra and indirectly with sternum, pairs 11-12 (floating ribs) articulate with vertebra no attachment anteriorly to sternum
24
Q
which ribs are typical and atypical
A
typical = 2-9
atypical = 1,10,11,12
25
what are the three elements of the sternum
manubrium, body, Xiphoid process
26
what is the structure of typical ribs
posterior end = head +tubercle
anterior end = continuous costal cartilage which articulates with sternum
27
rib 1 structure
flat in the horizontal plane, broad superior and inferior surfaces, articulates with the body of T1only
bony landmarks:
scalene tubercle, grooves, costal cartilage
28
alveoli structure
channels of martin (bronchiole-bronchiole)
Canals of Lambert (bronchiole-alveolar)
Pores of Kohn (alveolar-alveolar)
29
3 different sternocostal joints
- joints between rins 1-7 (true ribs) and sternum
- Rib 1 and the manubrium (fibrocartilaginous joint)
- ribs 2-7 synovial, surrounded by thin capsules
30
interchondrial joints
ribs 7-10, synovial joints, occur between costal cartilages of adjacent ribs, provide anchorage to the sternum
31
muscles active during inspiration
diaphragm
external intercostals
Accessory muscles:
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
Pec minor and major
32
Muscles active dring forced expiration
- internal intercostal
- rectus abdominis
- Transversus abdominis
- internal and external obliques
33
origins of the diaphragm
costal part: lower margin of costal arch (inner surface ribs 7-12)
Lumbar part:
medial - L1-L3 vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs (2nd and 3rd), anterior longitudinal ligament
Lateral - arcuate ligaments (median, medial and lateral)
Sternal part:
Posterior surface of xiphoid process
34
what is the insertion point of the diaphragm
central tendon
35
what is the innervation of the diaphragm
phrenic nerve (C3,C4,C5)
36
relaxed inspiration process
1. Controlled by autonomic nerve impulses from the respiratory centre in the brainstem
2. Nerve stimulation causes contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostals this expands the thoracic cage and lungs
3. Expansion creates a lower pressure relative to the outside of the body
4. Although only a small difference (gradient) the low resistance properties of the airway ensures efficiency
5. Air rushes in
37
Biomechanics of breathing
Pump handle:
- Primarily involves upper ribs and sternum
- Increases the anterior-posterior dimension of the chest
Bucket Handle:
- Primarily involves the lower ribs
- Increases the transverse diameter of the chest
38
how pump and bucket handle works
During inhalation, both pump handle and bucket handle movements occur simultaneously, allowing for maximum expansion of the chest cavity and intake of air.
The relative contribution of each movement can vary depending on breathing patterns and individual anatomy.
39
during forced inspiration what do the accessory muscles do
assist deep inspiration and assist during episodes of respiratory distress
also help to elevate the rib cage
40
is relaxed expiration a passive or active process
passive - relaxing of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, allows for elastic recoil of lung tissue
41
examples of forced expiration
cough, sneeze, physical exertion
42
what happens during forced expiration
contraction of the abdominal muscles causes the abdominal contents to push up against the diaphragm - reduces the vertical diameter of the thorax
contraction of the internal intercostal depress the ribs and decrease space in the thorax
43
what is bradypnoea
An abnormally slow respiratory rate (below 12 breaths per min)
44
what is hyperventilation/ tachypnoea
shortness of breath/ shallow breathing
45
what is apnoea
e.g sleep apnea, repeated lapses in breathing due to a partially or completely blocked airway
46
what is agonal breathing
Abnormal pattern of breathing characterised by laboured, gasping breaths that occur because of insufficient oxygen
47
what is orthopnoea
shortness of breath when lying down
48
what is kussmaul respiration
abnormal breathing at a rapid and deep rate (signals respiratory distress)
49
what is cheyne-stokes breathing
compensatory reflex that allows the body to quickly restore oxygen levels
50
PULMONARY A AND P (PP 2)
51
what part of the brain controls breathing
respiratory control centers in the brainstem
52
what are the 4 respiratory control centers in the brainstem
Inspiratory centre (medulla)
Expiratory centre (medulla)
Pneumotaxic centre (pons)
Apneuristic centre (pons)
53
where do medullary resp centres provide output to
respiratory and muscles and pontine centres
Occurs automatically without any concious effort
54
what are the factors controlling breathing
cerebral cortex can exert voluntary control over breathing as well as centres involved in emotion and pain
Peripheral chemoreceptors in vascular system and central chemoreceptors in brain detect changes to oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
stretch receptors in lungs and activity receptors in muscles and joints
55
characteristics of the airways
large surface area to enable efficient gaseous exchange
Tissues have intrinsic elastic properties to make the processes of breathing energy efficient
Rich blood supply for gaseous exchange
Fluid lubrication ensure rapid diffusion and counteract physical forces such as surface tension
56
what are the main gases in the body
oxygen (required for sustainable energy production) and carbon dioxide (can become toxic to cells at high levels)
57
what is bulk flow
movement of air from the atmosphere to alveoli (occurs due to pressure difference during inspiration in alveoli where alveoli pressure is less than the atmospheres)
58
What is diffusion of gas
movement of molecules from alveoli - blood - cell - blood - alveoli (occurs due to a high to low pressure gradient)
59
what does partial pressure mean
the concentration of each gas in the body
60
what are partial pressures measured in
kilopascals (kPa) or millimetres of mercury (mmHg)
61
what is the symbol for partial pressure of oxygen/ carbon dioxide in the air
PO2/PCO2
62
what is the symbol for the partial pressure of oxygen dissolved in plasma of arterial blood
PaO2
63
what is the symbol of partial pressure of carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma of venous blood
PvCO2
64
what are the factors affecting gas solubility (3)
Partial pressure of gas - the greater the partial pressure the faster it will dissolve into the liquid phase
Partial pressure of gas in liquid phase - If the partial pressure of a gas in the liquid phase becomes higher than its partial pressure in the gas phase, some of the dissolved gas will re-enter the gas phase
Solubility of a gas - E.g. CO2 is 20x more soluble in water than O2, so more will be dissolved at a lower partial pressure
65
where does gaseous exchange in the lungs occur
respiratory membrane (the alveolar airspace and the blood capillaries)
66
what three factors affect Gaseous exchange in the lungs
- gas partial pressure and gas solubility
- matching of alveolar ventilation with pulmonary blood perfusion
structural characteristics of the respiratory membrane
67
what is Ventilation (V)
volume of air entering the alveoli
68
What is Perfusion (Q)
volume of blood flowing through the lungs
69
what is V/Q mismatch
inadequacy of V or Q will significantly impact the oxygenation of the blood and the removal of CO2
70
in a healthy adult where in the lung is ventilation most optimal
lower 1/3 of the lung AKA dependent lung region
71
what do the upper (non-dependent) lung regions do
they have a greater initial volume e.g the alveoli are already expanded with little capacity for volume change
72
in a healthy self-ventilating adult lung where is perfusion most optimal
lower 1/3 of the lung AKA dependent lung region
73
what is perfusion influenced by
gravity, interaction of alveolar arterial and tissue pressure
74
why is the respiratory membrane able to enhance gaseous exchange
large surface area due to large number of lung alveoli
Very thin membrane so small depth for diffusion (1-2000ths of a millimetre)
75
what are the 2 ways oxygen is transported in the body
bound to haemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
76
what is haemoglobin composed of
4 polypeptide chains each bound to a haem group
77
what is the process of oxygen transport
1. Hb molecule can combine with 4 molecules of O2 forms oxyhaemoglobin (no O2 = deoxyhaemoglobin
2. Oxygen binds with the haem molecules
3. once the first molecule is attached the molecule changes its shape and increases O2 binding capacity
4. Affinity of Hb for O2 changes according to the O2 saturation
78
how much O2 is reversible bound or released is determined by
- Partial pressure of oxygen in blood (PO2)
- Temperature
- Blood pH
- The partial press of CO2 (PCO2) and therefore concentration of H+ ions
- blood concentration of BPG produced by RBC
79
how much carbon dioxide do respiring cells produce a minute
200ml
80
what are the 3 ways blood carries CO2 to the lungs
1. dissolved as CO2 in blood plasma (7-10%)
2. Chemically bound to Hb in RBCs as carbaminohaemoglobin (20%)
3. Bicarbonate ions in plasma (roughly 70%)
81
Haemoglobin (20%)
- rapid reversible reaction
- CO2 binds to globin portion of molecule forming carbaminohaemoglobin
- O2 binds with the haem portion = no competition but deoxyhaemoglobin combines more readily with CO2
- CO2 rapidly disassociates from Hb in the lungs when PCO2 in alveoli is lower than in the blood
- CO2 is loaded in the tissues where PCO2 is higher than in the blood
82
Bicarbonate ions (roughly 70%)
- series of chemical reactions in plasma or RBCs (majority in RBCs)
- CO2 rapidly diffuses into RBCs where it combines with water to form carbonic acid
- This reaction is 1000x faster in RBCs due to the action of an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase
- Carbonic acid produced is highly unstable and quickly disassociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions
- When hydrogen ions are released, they in turn bind to haemoglobin and facilitate the release of oxygen
83
respiration chemical reaction
CO2 + H20 <---->H2CO3 <---> H+ +HCO3-
84
WEEK 2 pt1
Cardiac anatomy and physiology
85
what is the function of blood
transport of oxygen, metabolic waste products, hormones; regulation of body temp, pH in body tissues, Maintaining adequate fluid volumes; protection - preventing blood loss via clotting, preventing infection
86
what are the main components of blood
plasma,RBCs, WBCs, platelets
87
where is the heart located
behind the sternum, 1/3 lies to the right of the midline, 2/3 lies to the left of the midline
88
what is the function of the atria
receiving chambers for blood
89
what is the function of ventricles
pumping chambers for the blood
90
what is pericardium
double walled sac surrounding the heart
91
what is the outer layer of pericardium
fibrous pericardium - made of fibrous connective tissue, protects heart, prevents overfilling, anchors heart to surrounding structures
92
what are the inner layers of Pericardium
Serous pericardium:
- Parietal pericardium lines the fibrous
pericardium
- Visceral pericardium fused to external layer of the heart wall (AKA epicardium)
- Pericardial fluid is in between parietal and visceral pericardium (pericardial cavity)
lubricates and creates frictionless environment
93
what are the 3 layers of the walls of the heart
Epicardium (outer layer), Myocardium (middle layer), Endocardium (thin layer of endothelium)
94
what are the key facts about myocardium
thickest layer of the wall of the heart, the layer that contracts, composed of cardiac muscle fibres arranged in spiral and loops, separate systems for atria and ventricles
95
what are the valves of the heart
Atrioventricular valves:
Tricuspid (right), Bicuspid (left)
Semilunar valves:
Pulmonary (right)
Aortic (left)
96
what is the pathway of blood through the heart
Right Side:
Pulmonary Circulation:
- R atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava
- Blood passes through the right tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
- Then passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
- Destination – lungs
Left Side:
Systemic circulation
- L atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins
- Blood then passes through mitral valve into the L ventricle
- Though the aortic valve into the aorta
- Destination – the body
97
what is coronary circulation
Coronary Circulation:
- Oxygenated blood supply to the heart supplied by coronary arteries
- Right and left coronary arteries arise from the base of the aorta
- Coronary arteries are superficial – located in epicardium
- Send branches deeper into the myocardium
- Blood flow to the myocardium occurs when the heart is relaxed – during a contraction the blood vessels in the myocardium are compressed
- Coronary veins return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via the coronary sinus
98
what is systole
heart contracts
99
what is Diastole
heart relaxes
100
what happens in early diastole
- Whole heart relaxed
- Pulmonary and aortic valves shut
- AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid/mitral) open
- Blood flowing passively from great veins through atria to ventricles
101
what happens during atrial systole
- Atria contract forcing blood into the ventricles
- Atria then relax
102
what happens during ventricular systole: isovolumetric contraction
- Ventricles contract
- Increase ventricular pressure
- AV valves now close
- Aortic and pulmonary valves still closed – this contraction does not bring about any change in volume
103
what happens during ventricular systole: ventricular ejection
- Ventricular pressure continues to rise
- Aortic and pulmonary valves forced open
- Blood rapidly ejected into the aorta (L) and pulmonary artery (R)
- While the ventricles are in systole, atria are in diastole and filling with blood
104
what happens during ventricular diastole: isovolumetric relaxation
- Ventricles relax and ventricular pressure drops
- Blood in aorta and pulmonary artery starts to flow back towards heart = aortic and pulmonary valves shut
105
what are the specialised conduction fibres in the heart
- Sinoatrial node (pacemaker)
- Atrioventricular node (AV node)
- Atrioventricular bundle of His
- Purkinje fibres
Contraction imitated at the SA node in the R atrium, Impulse spreads through both atria to the AV node, Passes to the bundle of His, Finally, to the Purkinje fibres
106
what is the function of the SA node
Causes depolarisation and contraction of both atria (atrial systole)
107
what is the function of the AV node
- Slows impulse down
- Allows time for atrial contraction and ventricular filling
108
what is the function of the Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibres
- Causes depolarisation and contraction of both ventricles (ventricular systole)
109
WEEK 2 pt 1
Cardiac anatomy and Physiology
110
what are the functions of blood
transport: oxygen, metabolic waste products, hormones
Regulation of: body temp, pH in body tissues, maintaining adequate liquid volume
Protection: preventing blood loss via clotting and preventing infection
111
what are the main components of the blood
Plasma, RBCs, WBCs, Platelets
112
where/ how is the heart located in the chest
behind the sternum, 1/3 lies to the right of the midline, 2/3 lies to the left of the midline
113
what is the double membrane that surrounds the heart
Pericardium
114
how many chambers does the heart have
2 atria (receiving chambers) and 2 ventricles (Pumping chambers)
115
what is Pericardium
double walled sac surrounding the heart
Fibrous pericardium is the outer layer
Made of tough fibrous connective tissue
Protects heart, prevents overfilling, anchors heart to surrounding structures (including diaphragm via the central tendon)
Serous pericardium is the inner layers:
Parietal pericardium lines the fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium fused to external layer of the heart wall (AKA epicardium)
Pericardial fluid in between parietal and visceral pericardium – pericardial cavity – lubricates and creates frictionless environment
116
what are the layers of the walls of the heart
Epicardium (AKA visceral pericardium)– outer layer a thin layer of external membrane
Myocardium – middle layer of cardiac muscle
Endocardium – thin layer of endothelium
117
What is the structure of myocardium
Thickest layer of the wall of the heart
This is the layer that contracts
Composed of cardiac muscle fibres arranged in spirals and loops
Separate systems for atria and ventricles
Cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) are specialised “excitable cells”
118
what is the difference between the walls of the atria and walls of the ventricles and why
Atria smaller and thinner walls than ventricles
only have to pump blood into the adjoining ventricle
Ventricles pump blood
To the lungs (right ventricle)
Around the body (left ventricle)
Left ventricle thicker walled than the right ventricle
119
what are the two types of valves that separate the atria and ventricles
Atrioventricular Valves:
* Tricuspid valve on right
* Bicuspid valve on left
Semilunar Valves:
* Pulmonary Valve on right
* Aortic valve on left
120
how does blood flow through the right side of the heart
Pulmonary circulation (heart-lungs)
R atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava
Blood passes through the right tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
Then passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
Destination – lungs
121
how does blood flow through the right side of the heart
Systemic circulation (heart-body)
L atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins
Blood then passes through mitral valve into the L ventricle
Though the aortic valve into the aorta
Destination – the body
122
what is coronary circulation
Oxygenated blood supply to the heart supplied by coronary arteries
Right and left coronary arteries arise from the base of the aorta
Coronary arteries are superficial – located in epicardium
Send branches deeper into the myocardium
Blood flow to the myocardium occurs when the heart is relaxed – during a contraction the blood vessels in the myocardium are compressed
Coronary veins return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via the coronary sinus
123
what is systole
when the heart contracts
124
what is diastole
when the heart relaxes
125
what is the cardiac cycle
mechanical events which occur with the flow of blood through the heart in one heartbeat
Mechanical events are preceded by electrical activity
126
what happens during early diastole
Whole heart relaxed
Pulmonary and aortic valves shut
AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid/mitral) open
Blood flowing passively from great veins through atria to ventricles
127
what happens during atrial systole
Atria contract forcing blood into the ventricles
Atria then relax
128
what happens during ventricular systole (isovolumetric contraction)
Ventricles contract
Increase ventricular pressure
AV valves now close
Aortic and pulmonary valves still closed – this contraction does not bring about any change in volume
129
what happens during ventricular systole (ventricular ejection)
Ventricular pressure continues to rise
Aortic and pulmonary valves forced open
Blood rapidly ejected into the aorta (L) and pulmonary artery (R)
While the ventricles are in systole, atria are in diastole and filling with blood
130
what happens during ventricular diastole (isvolumetric relaxation)
Ventricles relax and ventricular pressure drops
Blood in aorta and pulmonary artery starts to flow back towards heart = aortic and pulmonary valves shut
131
what are the specialised conduction fibres of the heart
Sinoatrial node (pacemaker)
Atrioventricular node (AV node)
Atrioventricular bundle of His
Purkinje fibres
Contraction imitated at the SA node in the R atrium
Impulse spreads through both atria to the AV node
Passes to the bundle of His
Finally, to the Purkinje fibres
132
what is the function of the SA node
Causes depolarisation and contraction of both atria (atrial systole)
133
what is the function of the AV node
Slows impulse down
Allows time for atrial contraction and ventricular filling
134
what is the function of the Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibres
Causes depolarisation and contraction of both ventricles (ventricular systole)
135
what is depolarization of the heart
At rest, cardiac calls are considered polarised i.e. no electrical activity takes place
When an electrical impulse is generated it causes depolarisation which results in
an action potential being created
Action potentials are related to ionic movement in the cell*
Depolarization with corresponding contraction of myocardial muscle moves as a wave through the heart
Repolarisation results in the return of the ions to their previous resting state – corresponds with relaxation of the myocardial muscle
Depolarization and repolarization are electrical activities which cause muscular activity in the heart
136
how does the autonomic nervous system regulate the heart
Normal adult heart rate (HR) 50-100 beats per minute
ANS regulates the electrical conductivity of the heart
Adjusts HR in response to various stimuli
Increases HR by releasing catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenaline
Decreases HR by releasing acetylcholine
137
what is a normal adult blood pressure during systole and diastole
Systolic / Diastolic
95-140 / 60-90 mmHg
138
what is blood pressure
Pressure exerted by blood against the inner wall of an artery
BP = SV x HR x TPR
139
what is heart rate
beats per minute
140
what is stroke volume
volume of blood ejected from ventricles per contraction
141
what is cardiac output
volume of blood ejected from ventricles in 1 minute (SV x HR)
142
what is total peripheral resistance (TPR)
friction encountered by blood as it passes through a peripheral artery
143
how is blood pressure regulated
BP regulated by baroreceptors located in pressure receptor zones:
High pressure zones e.g. aortic arch
Low pressure zones e.g. venae cava, atria, pulmonary veins
Baroreceptors send signals to the medulla (in brainstem) where autonomic nervous system stimulation leads to adjustments
Force of contraction
HR
Renal system – long term regulation of BP via altering blood volume
144
what are blood vessels made up of
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
Arteries carry blood away from the heart
They branch to as they form smaller and smaller divisions reaching their smallest divisions – arterioles
Capillaries have contact with tissue cells
Veins carry blood towards the heart
Venules (the smallest veins) join into successively larger vessels approaching the heart
145
which blood vessel is the right atrium supplied by
vena cava
146
what is the function of the right ventricle
pumps blood to pulmonary arteries
147
which blood vessel is the left atrium supplied by
pulmonary veins
148
what is the function of the left ventricle
pumps blood to aorta
149
what are the three layers of most blood vessels
Tunica intima – inner layer, in contact with the blood
Tunica media – smooth muscle and elastin
Tunica externa/adventitia – outer layer made of collagen
150
what are the blood vessels involved in moving blood away from the heart
Elastic arteries
Thick-walled elastic arteries near heart and aorta
Largest diameter 2.5cm – 1cm
Large lumens = low resistance
Blood flows continuously (not stop-start) because the walls expand and recoil as the heart ejects blood
Muscular arteries
Deliver blood to specific organs
Able to vasoconstrict as have more smooth muscle
Arterioles
Lumen <0.3mm
Blood flow to capillary bed determined by arteriolar diameter – which can change due to neural, hormonal and local chemical influences
151
what are the 2 types of capiliaries
Metarteriole – thoroughfare channel connecting arteriole to venule (vascular shunt)
True capillaries – actual exchange vessels. 10-100 per capillary bed
152
what is capillary exchange
Exchange between blood and surrounding tissues across the capillary walls:
Passive diffusion of substances down concentration gradients- nutrients, O2, CO2, metabolic wastes etc
Bulk Flow – where filtered blood plasma moves in and out of tissues via pressure and osmotic changes
Bulk flow plays an important role in regulating blood fluid volume
Any imbalance between the amount filtered and the amount reabsorbed is corrected by the lymphatic system
153
what are the 2 subdivisions of veins
Venules:
Capillaries unite to form venules
Postcapilliary venules are porous (like capillaries) – fluid and white blood cells can move through their walls e.g. inflammation
Veins:
3 layers in their walls, but thinner walls and smaller lumens than arteries
Able to accommodate large volume of blood
Have valves (venous valves) to prevent back flow of blood – prevalent in the veins of the limbs
154
WEEK 2 pt 2
Cardiac Pathologies
155
what are the modifiable risk factors of cardiac disease
Smoking
Unhealthy diet
Obesity
Physical inactivity
Hypertension
Associated conditions i.e diabetes
Dyslipidaemia
Social isolation
Depression
Stress
156
what are the non-modifiable risks of cardiac disease
Age
Sex M>F
Family history
Poor socioeconomic status
Indigenous
Inflammation from diseases, such as arthritis, lupus or infections, or inflammation of unknown cause
157
what are the global risk factors of heart and circulatory disease
hypertension, dietary risks, high LDL cholesterol, air pollution, tobacco, diabetes, obesity, renal failure
158
WEEK 3 - pt1
pathology symptoms, subjective Ax + auscultation intro
159
what are the main cardinal signs and symptoms
* Cough
* Sputum
* Dyspnoea
* Wheeze
* Chest pain
160
what are the other cardinal signs and symptoms
* Tachycardia and Tachypnoea
* Blood in Sputum (haemoptysis)
* Frequent infections
* Cyanosis
* Peripheral Oedema
* Fatigue
* Insomnia
161
