Psychotherapy research Flashcards
Eysenck
Summarized 24 studies from 1920 to 1950 and concluded that the effects of psychotherapy are small or nonexistent. He had a no therapy control group vs eclectic psychotherapy vs psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
He was challenged on methodological grounds. His patients may not have been equivalent in terms of severity across groups. And no therapy group got medical treatment.
Smith, Glass, and Miller/Meta-analysis
First to apply meta analysis to psychotherapy outcome research and their results contradicted Eysenck’s finding.
Effect size
In meta analysis you combine results of multiple studies using an effect size. Usually involves subtracting the mean outcome score of the txt group from mean outcome score of control group and dividing difference by standard deviation of control group.
Smith, Glass, Miller
Conducted meta-analysis consisting of 475 outcome studies between 1941 and 1976 and found a mean effect size of .85. This suggests that the average client at the end of therapy is better off than 80% of those that did not receive therapy. Effect size for psychotherapy research is the same or higher than those for medical and education interventions and support claim that psychotherapy is generally efficacious.
Meta analyses have not found any one type of therapy to be better than other. However, some evidence that CBT is better for some disorders such as panic, phobias, and compulsions. This suggests that positive change in therapy is not due to any one particular technique but instead to factors that are common across all therapies including catharsis, positive therapeutic relationship, behavioral regulation, and cognitive learning and mastery.
Howard and his colleagues/ dose dependent effect
Relationship between treatment length and outcome levels off at 26 sessions. 75% of patients improved after 26 sessions but only 85% improved at 52 sessions. This is the dose dependent effect.
Phase model
Benefits of treatment vary depending on number of session. Three stages:
1) remoralization: client feelings of hopelessness and desperation respond quickly to therapy and happens during first few sessions
2) remediation: focus on symptoms that brought client to therapy; symptomatic relief is about 16 sessions
3) rehabilitation: focuses on unlearning maladaptive behaviors and establishing new ways; number of sessions depends on type and severity of problems.
Well being first phase, symptom outcomes second phase and life functioning outcomes third phase
Efficacy
Clinical trials
Effectiveness
Correlational or quasi-experimental in nature; best for assessing clinical utility that is determining generalizability, feasibility, and cost-effectiveness
Utilization of mental health services
Differ by race/ethnicity, type of treatment setting, and type of problem; smaller proportion of African Americans receive mental health services compared to whites but they are over represented in emergency services and inpatient psychiatric care settings. Asian American are underrepresented in inpatient and outpatient settings. Smaller proportion of African Americans and Hispanics receive treatment for depression compared to white, but African Americans are more likely to receive treatment for drug use.
Premature termination rates
50% of minorities drop out after first session. But only 30% of whites drop out. In community mental health services, African Americans had higher dropout rate than whites, Asians had lower rate, and Hispanics had similar rate to whites
Effects of therapist client matching
Inconclusive results; recent meta analysis indicated that therapist matching had a small effect but not significant effect on number of sessions attended.
Ppl with a strong association with their culture are more likely to prefer ethnically similar counselor. Other factors may be more important than race - education, similares in values and worldview
Older adults
Respond to treatment just as well as young people but slower progress; most common disorders include anxiety, severe cognitive impairment , and depression in this order; behavioral and environmental treatments well-established for behavioral problems associated with dementia; memory and cognitive training probably efficacious for dementia; cbt and brief psychodynamic probably efficacious for depression
Interventions for victims of spousal/partner abuse
Women more likely to be victims when they are younger, heterosexual, American Indian/Alaskan native (followed by African American), income less than 10,000. Income singles best predictor of abuse.
Goals of txt should focus on safety and increasing self-esteem, self-empowerment and control
Important for clinicians to self-monitor to avoid vicarious trauma
Often separate interventions for victims and perpetrators but Mack states that conjoint couples therapy may be appropriate if abuse is expression (occurs as result of emotion, mutual, shows remorse) vs instrumental (on purpose, unprovoked, unilateral).
Treatment manuals
Designed to standardize psychotherapeutic treatment; con is that it can oversimplify treatment and techniques; pro is that is can help disseminate evidence based treatments
Placebo effect
Different in psych. Refers to the nonspecific (common factors) of treatment; actually results in substantial improvements. Some say not an appropriate comparison group; when compared placebo to no treatment or waitlist, effect size of .67 but .48 when compare to an actual therapy.
Diagnostic overshadowing
Attribute Sxs to some other condition instead of what it is originally supposed to be.
Alloplastic vs autoplastic interventions
Alloplastic is make changes to environment so it accommodates the individual and autoplastic is make changes to individual so he/she can fit to the environment
Therapist distress
Suicidal statements most distressing client behavior; lack of therapeutic success most stress aspect of work; confidential most common legal issue
Psychiatric hospitalizations
Women more likely to have MH disorder than men in all age groups but men more likely to be hospitalized because they are more likely to show acting out behaviors which are a bigger concern to society whereas women are more likely to show anxiety and depression.
Psychiatric inpatients
Widowed less likely, married intermediate, and never married highest chance. Many whites but minorities are overrepresented. Most likely between 25-44; schizophrenia most likely diagnosis for less than 65. Those 65 or older, it is organic disorder followed by affective disorder. Women more likely to be outpatient. Whites majority of admissions to inpatient and outpatient.
African Americans
Emphasize group welfare over individual needs; focus on family including extended family. Church is considered important part of family; family roles are flexible; may exhibit health cultural paranoia
American Indians and Alaskan natives
Exhibit spiritual and holistic orientation; emphasis on extended family and tribe; strong sense of cooperation and generosity; time in terms of personal and seasonal rhythms; want therapist that helps reaffirm cultural values, adopt collaborative, problem solving approach; incorporate elders, medicine people and other healers;
Network therapy
Incorporates family and community members; use with American Indians and Alaskan natives
Asian Americans
Important to be aware of country of origina and acculturation status; place grater emphasis on group vs individual; adhere to hierarchical family structure and traditional gender roles; emphasize harmony; value restraint of strong emotions that might otherwise disrupt peace and harmony; prefer a directives, structure, goal-oriented approaches that focuses on alleviating specific sxs; emphasize formalism in therapy; the function of shame and obligation in Asian cultures is to reinforce adherence to prescribed roles; recognize that modesty and self-deprecation are not necessarily signs of low self-esteem; establishing credibility and competence early in therapy; may express mental health issues as somatic complaints; focus more on behaviors than emotions
Hispanic/Latino Americans
Emphasize family welfare; interdependence is healthy; discussing intimate details with a stranger is highly unacceptable, problems should be handled with family; adapt concrete approach to life; often attribute control of life’s events to luck, supernatural, acts of god, etc.
Recommended to be active and directive and to adopt a multimodal approach; recommends family therapy; other guidelines include: adopt personalismo; aware that such families are patriarchal; consider impact of religion; may express mh problems as somatic complaints.
Sexual minorities
Experience more psych issues due to discrimination and prejudice;
Internalized homophobia is when they accept society’s negative evaluations of them; this results in low self-esteem, self-doubt, self-hatred, sense of powerlessness; can be addressed in therapy
Important issue is coming out. Has benefits. Males more likely to complete coming out milestones earlier than women except in age at which they come out. Ppl these days more likely to come out earlier.
Cultural competence
Consists of awareness of assumptions, knowledge of world views of culturally diverse clients, skills to use techniques appropriate for certain clients
Credibility and giving are two important processes when working with diverse clients
Indigenous healing
Culture specific ways of dealing with human problems and distress. (E.g., curanderismo)
Acculturation
Degree to which a diverse member accepts and adheres to new culture.
Integration: has aspects of both cultures
Assimilation: person accepts main culture while relinquishing his
Separation: person withdraws from dominant culture
Marginalization: person identifies with neither culture
6 categories of acculturation: assimilated, fused, blended bicultural, alternating bicultural, separated, marginal.
Worldview
How a person perceives his own relationship to nature, other people, institutions, so on.
Determined by two factors: locus of control and locus of responsibility
White therapist likely to have internal locus of control and responsibility and misinterpret client who is black and has external locus due to racial oppression.
Minorities most likely to be IC ER due to oppression
Cultural encapsulation
Bad thing. When therapists define everyone’s reality according to their own.
Emic
Emic approach involves an attempt to see things through the eyes of the members of that culture
Étic
Viewing people from different cultures as essentially the same. Traditional psychological theories reflect an etic approach
High vs low context communication
High communication is grounded to the situation, depends on group understanding, relies heavily on nonverbal cues, and is slow to change. Low context relies on the explicit, verbal part of the message, less unifying, can change rapidly and easily.
Many diverse groups have high context communication.
Consequences of oppression
Internalized oppression is acting out against the system. Conceptual incarceration is assimilation. Split-self syndrome is seeing good and bad aspects of the self with the bad being the African American identity.
African Americans may display two survival mechanisms: 1) playing it cool and 2) Uncle Tom syndrome which is passivity.
Culture vs functional paranoia
Two forms of nondisclosure by african American clients; cultural paranoia is healthy and is when they do not disclose to white therapist due to fear; functional is unhealthy and when they do not disclose to anyone. 4 types:
1) intercultural nonparanoiac discloser (low functional and low cultural)
2) functional paranoiac (high function and low cultural)
3) healthy cultural paranoiac (low functional and high cultural)
4) confluente paranoiac (high functional and high cultura) doesn’t disclose to anyone due to racism and pathology. For this kind, the therapist should be the same race and culture but not necessary for others
Sexual stigma
Society’s negative regard for any nonheterosexual
Heterosexism
Cultural ideologies that define sexual minorities as deviant
Sexual prejudice
Negative attitudes that are based on sexual orientation
Racial cultural identity development model
5 stages: 1) conformity is preference for dominant culture and deprecating views of own culture
2) dissonance is confusion and conflict over the contradictory appreciating and depreciating attitudes that one has toward the self. These clients are likely to prefer minority therapist and see their problems as being due to racial/cultural identity problems
3) resistance and immersion is actively reject dominant culture. Prefer therapist from same race and see problems as being due to oppression
4) introspection are people who are uncertain about rigidity of beliefs held in stage 3. Prefer same race therapist but open to therapists with same world view
5) integrative awareness people experience a sense of self fulfillment with regard to cultural identity. Clients in this stage place greater emphasis on similar world view
Black Racial (Nigresence) Identity Development Model
5 stages:
1) Pre-encounter: racial identity and race have low salience in this stage. Usually prefer white therapist
2) encounter: exposure to a race event or series of events lead to greater racial awareness and leads to interest in developing black identity. Likely to prefer therapist of same race
3) immersion-emersion: race and racial identity have high salience. In immersion substage client has rage towards whites. Emersion substage, intense emotions subside but still rejects white culture.
4) internalization: race continues to have high salience. People in this stage have adopted one of three identities 1) pro black non racist, 2) a biculturist orientation, 3) multiculatirst orientation - integrates black with two or more cultures; ppl may exhibit healthy cultural paranoia
White racial identity development model (helms)
Hás two stages: abandoning racism and developing a nonracist white identity
6 statuses:
Contact status: obliviousness and denial
Disintegration: suppression of information and ambivalence
Reintegration: selective perception and negative out-group distortion
Pseudo-independence: selective perception and reshaping reality
Immersion-emersion: hypervigilence and reshaping
Autonomy: flexibility and complexity
Parallel interaction: patient and therapist have similar views of racial/cultural identity
Progressive interaction: when level of understanding of race in therapist and one step beyond client. This is most effective type.
Regressive interaction: clients level of understanding is higher
Crossed interaction: therapist and client report opposite info. opposite interactions about race.
Homosexual identity development model
Four stages:
Sensitization/feeling different: in middle school feel different
Self-recognition/identity confusion: they realize they are attracted to same sex, leads to turmoil and confusion
Identity assumption: INdivildiual becomes more aware of homosexuality
Commitment/ identity integration: publicly disclose homosexuality
Diagnostic uncertainty
Use other specified disorder when therapist want to indicate reason why deviates from disorder.
Use unspecified disorder when therapist does not want to indicate reason
DSM 5
Cross-cutting measures level 1 and 2; disorder specific severity measures;
Outline for cultural Formulation
Guidelines for assessing four factors: 1) clien’ts cultural identity 2) clients’ currrent conceptualization of distress; 3) psychosocial factors and and cultural factors that impact the client’s vulnerability; 4) cultural factors relevant to relationship between client and therapist
Intellectual disability
Need to meet 3 criteria:
1) deficits in intellectual functions
2) deficits in adaptive functioning (social, communication, independent living)
3) onset of intellectual and adaptive problems during the developmental period
4 severity levels
Etiology: 30% of cases unknown and low birth weight is strongest predictor; 15-20% environmental factors (like autism); 30% chromosomal changes (like Down syndrome)
Autism spectrum disorder
Must meet the following criteria:
1) persistent deficits in social communications and interactions across multiple contexts
2) restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, and activities
3) symptoms during early developmental period
4) impairment in social, occupational, and other areas of functioning
Social problems apparent by about 12 months; poor prognosisl
Etiology: rapid head growth during first year of life; brain abnormalities ie amygdala, and cerebellum, neurotransmitter abnormalities, and some genetic component.
ADHD
Onset prior to 12 years, inattention or hyperactivity for at least 6 months, present in at least two settings, interferes with social, occupational, or academic functioning, requires at least 6 symptoms.
Combined presentation is when 6 symptoms in each category.
Typically test lower on IQ tests though they are usually average or above average. Exhibit academic difficulties and may also have social problems.
Adults with adhd tend to have low self-esteem, poor health outcomes, and education and occupational achievement.
Prevalence: 5% among children and 2.5% among adults. More common among males 2.1 ratio in children and 1.6 to 1 in adults. Combined subtype more common in males and inattentive subtype more common among females.
Etiology: there is a genetic component. Brain abnormalities include lower than normal activity and smaller size in caudate nucleus globus pallidus, and prefrontal cortex.
Behavioral disinhibition hypothesis: adhd is inability to regulate behavior or attention.
Stimulants work in about 75% of cases. Parent training and teacher training also commonly used.
In MTA study, compared med alone, behavioral txt alone, combine, and community care. Meds and behavioral txt were superior but benefits did not persist at 3 and 8 year follow ups.
Specific learning disorder
Presence of at least one characteristic sxs for at least 6 months; academic skills below what is expected for that age, began during school years, results in functional impairment
20 to 30% of children with learning disorder also have adhd.
One third of children with learning disorder have psychological problems as an adult.
More common in males
Etiology: cerebellar vestibular dysfunction, hemispheric abnormalities, exposure to toxins
Tourette’s disorder
At least one vocal tic or motor tics, persisted for more than one year, began prior to 18
Associated sxs is obsessive and compulsive. Many with this disorder also have OCD
Etiology: elevated levels of dopamine and super sensitivity of dopamine receptors in caudate nucleus
Txt: CBIT, haloperidol and pimozide; works for 80% but has intolerable side effects. SSSRI to alleviate ocd; clonodine (blood pressure), desipramine (antidepressant) to treat adhd.
Behavioral pediatrics, disclosure
Good to disclose; disclosure in early stages of cancer associated with better coping
Medical procedures
Multicomponent cognitive behavioral interventions useful for reducing children’s anxiety about medical procedures and the pain they cause. Based on stress inoculation model. Involves providing child with information about the procedure and using techniques to help child cope
Hospitalization
Children between ages of 1-4 has the most negative reactions to hospitalization due to child’s separation from family. This lead to increased visitation hours in hospitals
Physical disabilities
Risk for psychopathology greatest among children with a major neurological disorder (3 x higher)
School adjustment
CNS irradiation and intrathecal chemotherapy associated with impaired neurocognitive functioning and higher rate of learning disability.
Compliance
Noncompliance with medical regimens common among children and adolescents. Particular problem among adolescent and linked to concerns about peer acceptance, reduced conformity to rules, questioning credibility of HCP, reduced parental supervision.
Delusional disorder
Presence of one ore more delusions for at least one month.
Erotomanic- person believes that another is in love with him or her Grandiose: Jealous Persecutory Jealous Somatic Mixed Unspecified
Schizophrenia
At least two active phase sxs with at least one of them being hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech for at least one month. Continuous signs of the disorder for at least 6 months. And significant impairment in functioning.
SUD is common with rate of tobacco disorder being particularly high
Prevalence: 0.3-0.7% with rate slightly lower for females
Culture: findings that higher rate in african Americans is actually due to misdiagnosis and because that population is more likely to experience hallucinations and delusions due to depression and other disorder.
WHO international pilot study of schizophrenia compared patients with schizo in non western world to those in western world and found that those in non-western wold more likely to exibit acute set of sxs, a shorter clinical course, and a complete remission.
Onset between late teens and early 30s with peak in early to mid 20s for males and late 20s for females. Complete remission is rare.
Good prognosis associated with a good premorbid functioning, an acute and late onset, female, presence of a precipitating event, briefer duration of active phase sxs, insight into illness, family history of a mood disorder and no family history of schizo.
Concordance rates: 10% biological sibling, 17% fraternal twin, identical twin 48%, child of two parents with it 46%
Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles, smaller hippocampus, amygdala, and globus pallidus, lower activity in prefrontal cortex.
Treatment: traditional first generation antipsychotics (haloperidol fluphenazine) they eliminate positive sxs. They have severe side effects, mainly tardive dyskinesia
Atypical second general drugs are clozapine and risperidone. Can reduce both positive and negative sxs and less chance to develop TD.
Drugs are most effective when combined with psychosocial interventions like CBT.
Family interventions are beneficial when they target high levels of expressed emotion which has been linked to rehospitalization and relapse. This is when there is hostility towards patient or overprotective ness.
Dopamine hypohthesis
Early theory suggesting schizophrenia due to excess dopamine or overly sensitive dopamine receptors. Now revised to say that dopamine levels depending on sxs and that there are other neurotransmitters involved.
Schizophreniform disorder
Same diagnostic criteria as schizophrenia except present for at least one month but less than 6 months and impaired functioning may occur but not required.
Brief psychotic disorder
Often follows exposure to an overwhelming stressor. Presence of one of four sxs but one has to be delusions.
Schizoaffective disorder
Concurrent sxs of schizophrenia and a major depressive or manic episode with a period of at least two weeks with the mood sxs.
Bipolar 1
One manic episode that lasts at least a week. May include one or more episodes of hipomania and major depression
Comorbid with SUD and anxiety. 15 more likely to commit suicide compared to general population.
12 month prevalence is 0.6%. Slightly more common in males 1.1 to 1.
Genetics most consistently linked to bipolar disorders. 67 to 100% for identical twins. 20% for fraternal.
Lithium effective in 60 to 90% of cases. Compliance is a frequent problems. Think thy feel better stop, side effects, or are unwilling to give up high of manic episodes. For people that don’t respond to lithium or have rapid cycling or dysphoric mania, anti-seizure drug may be effective. For those experiencing acute mania, antipsychotic drug. Antidepressant may also be used but if combined with mood stablizer, may trigger a manic episode…. Risk greater with SSRIs than TCAs.
Compliance is enhanced when combined with psychotherapy (CBT, FFT interpersonal and social rhythm therapy).
Bipolar 2
At least one hypomanic (less severe and lasts for at least 4 days) and one major depressive episode. Not severe enough to cause impairment
Cyclothymic disorder
Numerous periods of hypomania but does not meet criteria to meet hypomanic epidsode and depression that does not meet criteria. Lasts for at least 2 years
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
Severe recurrent temper outbursts and usually occur three times per week on average. In between temper outbursts, the individual is mostly irritable. This has to last at least 12 months and between when individual is 6 to 18 years old but sxs have to exists before 10 years old.
Major depressive disorder
At least 5 sxs
Associated with sleep issues by 40 to 60% of outpatients: early morning awakening, reduced stage 3 and stage 4 (slow wave) sleep, decreased REM latency, increased duration of REM sleep early in night.
7% 12 month prevalence; people 18-29 3x more likely to have this compared to ppl 60 or older; at adolescence, females 1.5 to 3x more likely to have this compared to males.
Peak age is in mid 20s; might be precipitated by severe stressor but then related to number of depressive episodes.
Very genetic; 50% for identical twins and 20% for fraternal. Neuroticism and depression have same genetic predisposition which is why both are associated.
Catecholamine hypothesis: deficiency in norepinephrine
Indolamine hypothesis: deficiency in serotonina;
Elevated levels of cortisol which cause shrinkage in hippocampus.
Treatment: TCA, SSRIs, MAOI, SNRI
Study comparing IPT, CBT, TCA…. All three similarly effective but TCA better for severe depression
ECT side effective can be reduced by administering it unilaterally to right non dominant hemisphere.
Peripartum onset
Depression during or up to 4 weeks after pregnancy.
Behavioral theory of depression
Low rate of response contingent reinforcement
Learned helplessness model
Result of prior exposure to uncontrollable negative events along with attributing those events to internal, stable, and global factors. More recent model says it is just about hopelessness without attributions.
Depressive cognitive triad
Negative views of self, the world, and the future.
Suicide factors
Age: 45-54 most common with 45-54 most common for females and over 75 for males
Gender: males four times more likely but women more likely to attempt
Race/ethnicity: highest for whites except American Indian
Marital status: divorced, widowed, single, married
Suicidal thoughts and behaviors: most people have a previous attempt (60-80%)
Early warning signs: making preparations for dying, threading self-harm, talking about suicide etc
Life stress: big stressors like rejection by a loved one, living alone; among adolescents usually preceded by interpersonal conflict.
Psychiatric disorders; most have a mental disorder like bipolar or major depression. Most likely to occur within 3 months after depressive sxs begin to improve. Suicide risk when depression comorbid with SUD, conduct disorder, or ADHD.
Personality correlates: hopelessness and perfectionism
Biological correlates: low levels of serotonin and 5-HIAA (serotonin metabolite)
Separation anxiety disorder
At least 3 sxs including fear of being alone, excessive distress when separated, somatic sxs when separated; must last for 4 weeks in children and adolescents or 6 months in adults
May manifest as school refusal ages 5-7, 10-11, 14-16
Usually in children that come for warm, close family but precipites by life stressor like death of a pet.
Systematic desensitization or for older kids, cognitive approaches
Specific phobia
At least 6 months
Due to abnormal levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.
Two factor theory attributes phobias to avoidance conditioning which involves both classical condition and operant conditioning.
Exposure with response prevention
Cognitive self control for treating children who are afraid of dark.
Social anxiety disorder
At least 6 months;
Linked to behavioral inhibition, a temperament trait. Also associated with certain information processing biases.
Exposure with response prevention; ssri, snri, or beta blocker propranolol
Panic disorder
Recurrent panic attacks with at least one attack followed by at least one month of worrying about having another panic attack.
Need at least 4 sxs to diagnose panic attack; have to rule out some medical conditions like hyperthyroidism, hypoglycemia, cardiac arrhythmia
2 to 3% 12 month prevalence with females more likely to be diagnosed. Prepubertal children rarely receive this diagnosis.
Panic control therapy appropriate also medications like imipramine or other TCAs, ssri, snri, and benzo but meds along has a high relapse rate 30-70% when discontinuing med
Agoraphobia
Marked fear or anxiety about at least two of these: using public transportation, being in enclose spade, being in open space, being in line or part of a crowd, or being outside of the home alone. Lasts at least 6 months
Txt: in vivo exposure with response prevention
Not sure if graded or intense exposure is better but some indication that intensive exposure has better long term effects
GAD
Excessive worry for at least 6 months has to include at least 3 sxs related to anxiety and worry such as easily fatigued, sleep disturbances
Over 50% of people with an anxiety disorder have at least one other anxiety disorder.
GAD has highest comorbidity with 90% of people also having MDD, PDD then SUD, phobia, or social anxiety disorder
CBT or for many a combination of CBT and pharmacotherapy.
OCD
Obsessions (can include repeated doubts about ones actions) and/or compulsions (can include mental acts)
1.2% 12 month prevalence rate
Equally common among males and females but because age of onset is earlier for males, it is more prevalent in males
Caused by low levels of serotonin; overactive right caudate nucleus, other areas include orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate cortex.
Combination of exposure with response prevention and TCA or ssri but antidepressants associated with high risk for relapse when stopping drug.
Body dysmorphic disorder
Preoccupation with with a defect or flaw in appearance
Reactive attachment disorder
Inhibited or emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult caregiver. Child must receive diagnosis before 5 and after 9 months.
PTSD
One intrusion sxs, persistent avoidance, two sxs related to negative changes in cognition and mood, 2 sxs related to change in arousal and reactivity.
Txt is comprehensive CBT. Sometimes SSRI prescribed to target comorbid depression or anxiety. High rate of relapse when drug discontinued.
Cognitive incident stress debriefing does not work. It may actually worsen sxs. EMDR has soem effects but may be due to exposure and other non specific factors rather than eye movement.
Acute stress disorder
Sxs from 3 days to one month
Adjustment disorder
Onset within three months of psychosocial stress but must terminate within 6 months after end of stressor or its consequences
DID
Important to consider cultural aspects when diagnosing bc this is acceptable in some cultures.
Dissociative amnesia
Localized amnesia and selective most common. Also, generalized, continuous, and systematized
Conversion disorder
Disturbances in voluntary motor or sensory functioning but does not match neurological or other medical condition.
Factitious disorder vs malingering
Fakes for no reward vs fakes for reward
Anorexia nervosa
Half of individuals with this disorder also have an anxiety disorder and the anxiety disorder usually comes before the eating disorder. Depression also common but can occur before or during the eating disorder.
Associated with higher than normal levels of serotonin and food restriction lowers that level which is rewarding.
Tend to be perfectionists
Some studies point to family problems as contributors but others do not.
Cbt and family therapy are recommended. However, families with high expressed emotion have greater relapse and parent should be seen separately.
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating and compensatory behaviors that occur at least once a week for 3 months.
Often associated with anxiety disorder or depression that precedes bulimia; depression most common among ppl with builimia.
Onset is usually during or after period of dieting
Low levels of serotonin and endogenous opioid beta endorphin
Treatment includes nutritional counseling and cbt. Antidepressants like imipramine and fluoxetine can help reduce binge eating but cbt has lower relapse rate.
Difference from anorexia is that these ppl are not underweight, no severe restrictions, and often aware that there’s a problem.
Enuresis
Wetting the bed after 5 yrs old twice a week for 3 or more months
Txt bell and pad… effective 80% of cases; 1/3 of children relapse within 6 months best when combined with behavioral rehearsal or over correction
Imipramine also helps reduce bedwetting 85% of cases but has poor long term efficacy. Desmopressin another drug that is a antidiuretic hormone but also not good for long term
Encoures is
Once a month for 3 months and child must be at least 4
Insomnia
Dissatisfaction with sleep quality or quantity; 3 nights a week for 3 months
Txt is cbt-i which includes sleep hygiene, stimulus control, relaxation training, cognitive therapy
Narcolepsy
Lapses into sleep or daytime naps 3x per week for 3 months. Includes cataplexy (loss of muscle tone), hypocretin defiency, or a rapid eye movement latency
Cataplexy triggered by strong emotions so they try to control emotions
Many have hypnogogic or hypnopompic hallucinations.
Non rapid eye movement sleep arousal disorders
Involves incomplete awakening like sleep terrors or sleepwalking. Usually during stages 3 and 4
Erectile dysfunction
Must be present for at least 6 months
If no erection during REM sleep then this suggests and organic cause.
If psychological, then use CBT. Viagra often commonly prescribed.
Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder
Persisted for 6 months, usually result from physical or sexual abuse.
Premature ejaculation
Ejaculate within one min or before person desire it…. Use sex therapy to treat. Techniques include sensate focus… start and stop and squeeze techniques for PE. PE is linked to low serotonin levels and SSRIs have been found to be effective.
Gender dysphoria
Different for children and adults. In children need to be present at least 6 months and require 6 sxs while adults require 2 sxs.
Rate of persistence depends on natal gender. Natal males 2.2-30% and natal females 12-50%
Paraphilic disorders
Cause distress or impairment to self or harm to others.
Frotteuristic - sexual arousal from touching or rubbing a non consenting adult
Transvestic disorder- cross dressing for sexual arousal. Mostly male disorder and most men say they are heterosexual.
Use cbt. Covert sensitization - aversive conditioning in imagination
Orgasmic reconditioning- replace unacceptable fantasy with more acceptable one while masturbating
Depoprovera reduces this behavior but returns when stopping drug.
Conduct disorder
Moffitt life-course persistent type (attributes to combination of neurological impairments like verbal skills, memory, executive functioning) vs adolescence limited type
PBT is txt or multisystemic treatment that targets family, school, community, individual etc.
Substance use disorders
At least 2 sxs for 12 months from four groups: impaired control, social impairment, risky use, pharmacological criteria
Etiology: Conger’s tension-reduction hypothesis - people drink to reduce tension and form an addiction. Addiction is the result of negative reinforcement.
Marlatt and Gordon say that addictive behaviors are an overlearned, maladaptive habit pattern.
Biopsychosocial models suggest that it is an interaction between physical, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Txt/relapse: cbt (motivational interviewing, relapse prevention training, contingency management). Family and couple therapy, 12 step programs. Naltrexone and disulfiram for AUD, nicotine replace, e cig, and antidepressant buproprione for TUD.
Marlatt and Gordon
Addiction is an overlearned, maladaptive habit pattern. Also propose that relapse reaction is the abstinence violation effect which involves blame, guilt, depression, anxiety which lead to increased susceptibility to alcohol consumption. Potential for relapse is reduced when ppl see it as a mistake resulting from controllable external factors.
Relapse prevention therapy
Helps identify circumstances that increases individuals chances for relapse and involves using cbt techniques to prevent future lapses and or how cope better if individual does relapse.
Tobacco use disorder
Ppl how smoke have 3 to 4 times higher chance of having myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, or smoke. But after 1 to 5 yers of quitting, risk is same as non smoker
Hard for smokers to quit… fear of failure and for women, fear of gaining weight average gain is 5 to 6 lbs first few months postcessation
Person continues to crave nicotine for months or years after quitting
Most successful quitters tend to be male, over 35, no smoking at home or work, be married or living with partner, have a college education, started smoking at later age, low nicotine dependency, and was able to quit for at least 5 days in prior attempts to quit.
Smoking cessation intervention
Support from clinicians
Nicotine replacement
Multicomponente behavior therapy (skills training, relapse prevention, stimulus control, and rapid smoking)
Substance induced disorders
Involves intoxication, withdrawal, and substance/mediation induced mental disorders. For the latter, sxs must have emerged within one month of substance intoxication or withdrawal or of taking a medication.
Alcohol withdrawal
Autonomic hyperactivity, hand tremor, sinsominia, nausea or vomiting, transient illusions or hallucination, anxiety, psychomotor agitation, generalized tonic clônic seizures.
Korsakoff syndrome
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia and confabulation to make up for memory loss. has been linked to thiamine deficiency.
Alcohol induced sleep disorder
Insomnia type in usually from intoxication or withdrawal
When resulting from withdrawal involves severe disruption in sleep continuity from vivid dreams.
Opioid withdrawal
Dysphoric mood, nausea or vomiting, muscle aches, lacrimation, runny nose, pupillary dilation, piloerection, sweating, diarrhea, yawning, fever, insomnia
Tobacco withdrawal
Irritability, anger, impaired concentration, increased appetite, restlessness, depressed mood, insomnia
Delirium
Disturbance in attention and awareness that develops over a short period of time and fluctuates throughout the day and usually gets worse in evening and at night. Must be due to medical condition, substance intoxication or withdrawal, or exposure to a toxin.
5 groups of people who are at highest risk: older people, drug dependence, people with decreased cerebral reserve (dementia, stroke, HIV), post cardiotomy patients, burn patients
Treat underlying cause and agitation behaviors; haloperidol and other antipsychotics may help.
Alzheimer’s
Difficult to diagnose, not until after death doing a biopsy and seeing amyloid plaques and tangles especially in hippocampus, amygdala, and entorhinal cortex)
Probably diagnosis when evidence of causitive genetic mutation. Other possible. Also have to differentiate between major and mild neurocognitive disorder (less marked decline in functioning from previous functioning level and does not interfere with individual independence in daily activities)
Most common cause of dementia
3 stages:
Stage 1 : anterograde amnesia
Stage 2: retrograde amnesia
Stage 3: major deterioration in intellectual functioning; urinary and fecal incontinence, limb rigidity
Abnormalities in chromosomes 1, 14, 21, and with abnormality on chromosome 19 being associated with late onset
Abnormal levels of acetylcholine (involved in formation of memories)
Group therapy, behavioral techniques and antipsychotic medications to reduce agitation, antidepressants to relieve depression, environmental manipulation and meds to improve memory and cognition. Cholinesterase inhibitors
Infection from major or mild neurocognitive disorder
HIV can cause this and there are 6 stages.
Paranoid personality disorder
Paranoid person
Schizoid personality disorder
Person that prefers to be alone and does not want close relationships with others; emotional coldness and detachment
Schizotypal personality disorder
Social and interpersonal deficits plus eccentricities in cognition, perception, and behavior. May express desire for close personal contact but have few friends and prefer being alone.
Antisocial personality disorder
Must be at least 18 with sxs since 15 and history of conduct disorder before 15. Sxs become less severe as you get older
BPD
Commonly diagnosed in individuals 19-34. And by 40, 75% don’t meet all criteria. Impulsive sxs most quickly to resolve with affective sxs most chronic.
According to linehan, emotion dysregulation is core feature of disorder, result fo excessive emotional vulnerability and inability to modulate strong emotions and exposure to an invalidating environment. Others say problems with mother child and separation individual stage.
DBT
CBT combined with rogerian thinking that patient needs to be accepted in order ot make changes. It involves group skills training, individual therapy to strengthen motivation and newly acquired skills, and coaching outside of therapy.
Histrionic
Emotionality and attention seeking
Narcissistic
Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy
Avoidant PD
Social anxiety x10
Dependent PD
Need to be taken care of, clinging behavior and a fear of separation
OCPD
Fixated with orderliness and perfectionism. Does not involve true obsessions and compulsions like OCD
Genotype vs phenotype
Genotype refers to genetic make up. Phenotype refers to observed characteristics
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
5 environmental systems:
1) microsystem (face to face relationships)
2) mesosystem (components of microsystem interact such as family factors influence on child’s behavior at school)
3) exosystem (parent’s work place, school board, local industry, mass media)
4) macrosystem (cultural beliefs, economic system, politics)
5) chromosystem (environmental events that occur over lifespan and impact the individual depending on his or her developmental stage and life circumstance such as immediate and long term effects of a change in family structure or SES)
Rutter’s indicators
The more risk factors the worse the outcomes for children. Rutter identified 6 indicators:
Severe marital discord, low SES, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, place of the child outside the home.
Niche-picking
Children seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predisposition. For example extroverted children will seek out socially stimulating activities. Also called active genotype environment correlation vs passive vs evocative. Active becomes more important as children become more independent
Critical periods vs sensitive periods
Critical periods are specific predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to particular stimuli that can have a postive or negative effect. (When ducks are born, the 3 days after is a critical period because they are finding an object to imprint) Humans have some critical periods for physical development but less certain they exist for other things.
Sensitive periods are longer and more flexible and not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational age. Humans more likely to have this like language acquisition and attachment.
PKU or phenylketonuria
Recessive gene inheritance. When you lack the enzyme phenylalanine found in milk, eggs, bread etc so if you start a diet early than you avoid severe intellectual disabilities
Down syndrome
Disorder due to chromosomal abnormality. Extra chromosome 21
Increased susceptibility to Alzheimer’s, leukemia, and heart defects.
Klinefelter syndrome
Also chromosomal abnormality; abnormality in number of sex chromosomes. Occurs in males and due to presences of 2 or more Xs along with Y. Results in small penis/testes, develops breasts, limited sexual interest, often sterile and may have learning disabilities.
Turner syndrome
Occurs in female when there is only one X chromosome. Have certain physical features like webbed neck, droopy eyelids, and short. May exhibit cognitive deficits.
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Exposure to teratogens during the embryonic stage is most likely to cause the most damage.
FAS is the most severe of them. Results when mother drinks every day or most days especially during second half of first trimester. Cognitive problems, behavioral problems like adhd, retarded physical growth, facial anomalies etc.
Also alcohol related neurodevelopment disorder and alcohol related birth defects.
Areas of brain most likely to be impacted include corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and frontal lobes.
Cocaine
Use by a pregnant women associated with still birth and spontaneous abortion. Infants that are born are at high risk of SIDS, seizures, low birth weight, reduced head circumference, tremors, hard to smooth, high pitched cry, development delays. Cognitive and behavioral problems may persist unto early school years.
Malnutrition
Miscarriage, low birth weight, stillbirth, intellectual disability, suppression of immune system, etc. serious malnutrition during in third trimester (especially protein deficiency) is particularly bad for developing brain. Lack of folic acid can result in spina bifida
Brain development
Only 25% of its adult weight at birth then by age 2 80% of adult weight. Less about addition of new neurons but more about the connections between neurons and formation of glial cells. Brain full weight by age 16. Synaptic pruning occurs to rid of unused connections.
Cerebral cortex
Almost completely undeveloped at birth.
Responsible for high level cognitive functions like language, spatial skills, and complex motor activities. During first few months, primary motor and sensory areas develop while prefrontal cortex continues to mature until early or mid 20s
After 30, the brain begins to shrink and it becomes worse after 60. Starts with prefrontal lobes, parietal, temporal then occiptal lobes. But brain does engage in NEUROGENSIS develop new neural connections and neurons in hippocampus and possibly other areas
NEUROGENSIS
See other card. Brain creates no synaptic connections and neurons.
Early reflexes (Babinski and Moro (startle))
Unlearned responses to stimuli in environment.
Babinski toes fan out and upward when soles of feet are tickled
Moro flings arms and legs outward then in in response to loud noise or sudden loss of physical support.
Perception in newborns
Techniques used to study newborns depends on age:
Sucking 1 to 4 months
Reaching 12 weeks or later
Head turning 5.5 to 12 months
Heart and respiration all ages
Habituation vs dishabituation
Vision
Least well developed at birth. They see 20ft where as adult sees 200ft but vision basically normal by 6 months.
Babies first sensitive to kinetic cues, binocular cues, then pictorial cues.
Babies 2 to 5 days prefer faces and by 2 months prefer mother’s face. They also like black and white and then more complex things as they grow older.
Auditory localization
Ability to orient to direction of a sound is evident shortly after birth. It disappears 2 to 4 months then comes back and continues to improve
By 3 months infants can distinguish between voices and prefers mothers voice.
Pain
Newborns experience pain.
Full term newborns who experience painful medical procedure exhibited heightened responsivity to pain later infancy while preterm infants who did had lower reactivity.
Physical maturation in adolescents
Bad when teens perceive themselves to be different for their peers.
In boys, early maturing has some good things, more popular, more athletic, but more likely to be depressed and use drugs. Late maturing less popular, exhibit more attention seeeking behaviors, less confident, more depression
For girls, early maturing unpopular, poor self concept, more likely to engage in precocious sex and drug use, low academic achievement, more depression and eating disorders. For late maturing, dissatisfied with physical appears but superior academic achievement.
Visual changes
Around age 40, adults begin to experience presbyopia (in ability to focus on close objects) and after 65, most experience visual changes that interfere with daily activities.
Sexual activity in late adulthood
Older people can be just as sexually active as younger people but overall there is a decline in number of ppl who are sexually active as they get older.
Older people cite two reasons for not being sexually active: health problems in males or not having a partner
A larger proportion of older adults say their sex life is physical or emotionally better, with more males than females saying this.
Adaptation part of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (assimilation and accommodation)
When children encounter new information that doesn’t match their understanding, they will undergo an process of adaptation using two processes:
Assimilation is the incorporation of new knowledge into existing schemas and accommodation in when you modify schemas to fit new knowledge.
So child gets new toy and tries to understand it by assimilating and then once she understands it’s unique properties will accommodate it.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
Invariant and universal
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to 2 years has 6 sub stages - a child learns about objects and other people through the sensory information they provide.
Main accomplishments is establishment of object permanence developed in substage 4 in 8 to 12 months. Deferred imitation (copy another person’s behavior at a later time). Understanding of causality. And make believe play.
Object permanence
Child understand object exists even when it is not there.
Preoperational stage
2 to 7 years- symbolic (semiotic) function.. permits child to learn through the use of language, mental images, and other symbols. Because of this, these children engage in more symbolic play (e.g. adopting roles of other people and using objects) and can solve problems mentally
This stage is limited by:
1) precausal (transductive) reasoning - incomplete understanding of cause and effect. Two manifestations of precausal reasoning:
A) magical thinking - the belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur
B) animism - attributing human qualities to inanimate objects
2) egocentrism - unable to imagine another person’s POV
3) Do not recognize that actions can be reversed. They focus on the most central features (noticeable) of an object. They are unable to understand that if you change one dimension of an object, it doesn’t mean you change other dimensions. For example, if you pour water from fat glass to skinny tall glass, they think there is more water in tall glass.
Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 or 12 years)
Capable of mental operations (logical rules for transforming or manipulating information)
Children develop conservation in this stage- involves improving in irreversibility and decentration. These things develop gradually with conservation of numbering first, then liquid, length, weight, and displacement volume.
Horizontal decalage- gradual acquisition of conservation abilities
Formal operational stage
11 or 12 and older
Can think abstractly and engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning which is ability to form competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for testing those hypothesis.
There is also renewed egocentrism
Adolescent egocentrism: characteristics include personal fable (one is unique and rules don’t apply to them) and imaginary audience (always center of attention)
information processing theories
Compare functioning of computer programs to human mind. INvolve increasing processing capacity and efficiency.
Cognitive process are similar in all stages of development but differ in terms of their extent. For example, improvements in memory are due to larger memory capacity.
Focus on development within specific cognitive domains like attention, memory…
Also task specific
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Placed greater emphasis on social and cultural factors on cognitive development. All learning is socially mediated… development is first interpersonal and then intrapersonal (when child internalizes what she has learned).
Development is facilitated when instruction and other environmental demands fall within the child’s zone of proximal development.
This means that it is a level just beyond the level at which the child can function independently but can be reached if more experienced person provides scaffolding.
Memory strategies
Children by 9 to 10 consistently use memory strategies starting with rehearsal, organization, then elaboration. Memory differences between different age groups is related to improvements in meta cognition and meta memory.
Preschool age children memory strategies but in an ineffective way. Early elementary school aged children use memory strategies in somewhat more effective way but are often distracted by other information.
Childhood infantile amnesia
Adults are able to recall very few things before age 3 ot 4. This is because children at that age have not yet developed the brain structures needed for memory especially prefrontal lobes. Another explanation is that children that age do not have the language skills to encode memory.
Reminiscence bump: recall memory from adolescence and young adulthood. Some explanations is that 1) larger proportion of novel experiences during those years 2) encoding of information is most efficient during this period and 3) person developed personal sense of identity during those years.
Effects of age on memory
Increasing age greater impact on explicit memory as opposed to implicit.
Older adult more declines in recent long-term (secondary) memory followed by working memory.
Episodic memory more affected
Healthy adults benefit from training memory. Memory decline less apparent on familiar tasks.
Nativist approach to language acquisition
Chomsky - universal patterns of language and biological mechanisms.
Research showing that children from all cultures pass through same stages of language development. Also that children learn the basics of language from 4-6 regardless of the complexity of the native language.
We have a language acquisition device that allows us to learn language just by being exposed to it.
Semantic bootstrapping
Refers to child’s use of his or her knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their syntactical category like noun, verb, etc.
Syntactic bootstrapping
Child’s use of syntactical knowledge to infer the meaning of the word.
Like “this is rel” then rel must be an object.
Phonemes vs morphemes
Phonemes are smallest units of sound in a language like b p v th.
Morphemes is smallest units of sound that convey meaning like do, go, ed, ing, un.
Stages of language acquisition
Crying: three types of cry (hunger, angry, and pain). Mom’s respond most to pain. By 1 to 2 months, also a fussy cry. If parents consistently respond to cry during first few months, then that is associated with less crying in later years and greater reliance on communication using gestures, facial expressions, etc.
Cooing and babbling: at 6 to 8 weeks, children begin to coo - mainly vowels
At 4 months, they babble, which is repition of simple consonant and vowel sounds (bi bi bi). Babble includes vowels from all languages. But by 9 to 14 months, repertoire of sounds is specific to native language.
Ecolalia and expressive jargon: at 9 months of age, imitate adult speech sounds and words without understanding their meaning (ecolalia) and use expressive jargon which is they say a bunch not stuff that sounds like sentences but have no meaning.
First words: 13 months of age, understand about 50 words. Speak first word by 10 to 15 months and by 18 months, speak about 50 words.
First words: most often nominals
From 1 to 2 years, they use single words to indicate who phrases combined with gestures or intonation…
Telegraphic speech: 18 to 24 months, use telegraphic speech whic Hsu stringing twos or more words together to make a sentence “i stuck”
Vocabulary growth: at 18 months, rapid growth in vocabulary. Fasted rate from 30 to 36 months. At 36 months, 1000 words and 3 to 4 word sentences.
Grammatically correct sentences: 2.5 to 5 years sentences increase in complexity.
Metalinguistic awareness: gain ability to reflect on language. For example, recognize that they can use language in humorous ways.
Under extension vs over extension
Under extension is when child applies a word too narrowly. Like dish is only her toy dish.
Over extension is when a child applies the word more generally. Like all 4 legged animals are dogs.
Bilingualism
Do as well or even better than monolingual children on tests measuring language and cognitive skills.
Better cognitive flexibility, working memory,cognitive complexity, analytical reasoning, attentive control, metalinguistic awareness.
Bilingual education
High quality bilingual programs as good or better than English immersion programs.
Behavioral inhibition
Biological contribution and relatively stable throughout life. And related to physicological reactivity. Level of inhibition can be influenced by parent-child rearing practices. Warm and supportive parents decrease it.
Goodness of fit model
Children with easy or hard temperaments tend to have poor or good adjustments in young adulthood. But this is not perfect. Goodness of fit model predicts that it is the degree of match between parent’s behavior né child’s temperament.
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development
Oral stage (birth to 1 year) mouth is focus of sensation and stimulation. Weaning is primary conflict. Anal stage (1-3 yrs) control of bodily waste; conflict from toilet training Phallic stage (3-6 years); focus on genitals and conflict is Oedipal conflict. Development of the superego. Latency stage (6-12) libidinal energy is diffuse. Developing social skills Genital stage (12 or more years) libido centered on genitals. Sexual desire combined with affection to produce mature sexual relationships.
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
8 stages;
1) basic trust - positive relationship with primary caregiver leads to sense of trust
2) autonomy: sense of self or autonomy develops out of positive interactions caregivers
3) Initiative vs guilt: positive family relationships lead to setting goals and devising and carrying out plans.
4) industry vs inferiority: focus on neighborhood and school. To avoid feelings of inferiority, must master certain social and academic skills.
5) identify vs role confusions: peers are dominant social influence; positive outcomes is sense of personal identity
6) Intimacy vs isolation: establish intimate bonds of love and friendship
7) generativity: focus on the people one lives or works with. Commitment to well-being of future generations.
8) ego integrity: social influence broadens to include all of humankind. Development of wisdom and sense of integrity.
Parenting styles
Four styles:
authoritative is high demand low responsivity
Authoritarian is high demand and high responsivity (this is the best)
Permissive is low demand and high responsivity
Rejecting-neglecting is low demand and low responsivity (associated with juvenile delinquency)
Maternal depression
Increases children’s risk for emotional and behavioral problems. More chronic symptoms result in mother being less sensitive and engaged which leads to worse child outcomes
Associated with signs of physiological distress in infants by 3 months; associated with higher passive noncompliance, higher aggression; poor cognitive linguistic performance; insecure attachment.
Gender identity
Refers to the sense of being boy or girl. Usually developed by age 3. By 3, can label themselves as boy or girl, can label others, and know what behaviors are appropriate for each gender.
Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory as it pertains to gender identity
Involves sequence of stages:
By 2 to 3 establish gender identity.
Soon after, children realize that gender is stable over time (gender stability)
By 6, children realize that gender is constant across situations (gender constancy)
Bem’s gender schema theory
Children develop boy and girl schemas as a result of sociocultural experiences. Schemas then determine how child sees the world.
Combination of social learning and kohlbergs cognitive development theory
Androgyny
Gender identity greater impact on self-esteem than biological sex.
Combines male and female characteristics and preferences
Androgyny and to a lesser extend masculinity were associated with higher self-esteem.
Androgyny also associated with greater flexibility in dealing with difficult situations, higher life satisfaction, and greater comfort with ones sexuality.
Four identity statuses
Reflect the degree to which the individual has experienced or is experiencing an identity crisis and is committed to an identity.
D (identity diffusion): adolescents has not yet experienced an identity crisis and not yet committed to an identity
F (identity foreclosure): have not experienced a crisis by have adopted an identity imposed by same sex parent or other person.
M (identity moratorium): has an identity crisis and is exploring other identities. Stage that teen expresses confusion, rebellion, discontent
A (identity achievement): resolved the identity crisis by exploring differing identities and committing to one.
Gilligan’s relational crisis
11 to 12 years, girls experience this crisis in response to social pressures to be a perfect good woman. As a result they disconnect from themselves. They experience a loss of voice when they realize that women’s opinions aren ot highly valued.
Results in drop in academic achievement, low self-esteem, increased vulnerability to MH issues.
Kubler-Ross 5 stages of grief
1) denial and isolation (no this isn’t happening to me)
2) anger (why me)
3) bargaining (yes me but not until my grandchild is born)
4) depression (yes me)
5) acceptance (my time has come and that’s alright)
Contact comfort
Baby’s attachment is due in part to contact comfort. Support by research with monkeys that prefer the cloth mother. Supported by learning theory.
Bowlby’s internal working model
Bowlby said that in first year of life (critical period), infants form attachment with mother that helps ensure their survival and both infant and mother have a biological predisposition to doing this. The infant goes through four stages of attachment (preattachment, attachment in the making, clear cut attachment, and formation of recriprocal relationships).
So after going through these stages, infant forms an internal working model which is a mental representation of self and others that influences child’s future relationships.
Signs of attachment
Social referencing: by 6 months of age, infants look to caregiver to determine how to respond
Separation anxiety: severe distress when child separated from caregiver. Begins 6 to 8 month then peaks at 14 to 18 months then declines.
Stranger anxiety: by 8 to 10 months, very anxious and fearful in presence of stranger, especially when caregiver not nearby or when caregiver responds negatively to stranger. Continues to age 2 then diminishes.
Patterns of attachment (ainsworth)
Secure attachment: baby explores while mother in room then becomes mildly distressed when mother leaves but then seeks mother quickly when she returns.
Insecure (anxious/ambivalent) attachment: baby alternatives being clinging and resisting mother, becomes very disturbed when mother leaves, and is ambivalent when mother returns (may become angry and resist mother). These mothers are often moody and inconsistent (warm sometimes and indifferent at other times).
Insecure anxious avoidant: avoidant baby interacts very little with mother, shows little distress when she leaves, and avoids or ignores her when she returns. These mothers are usually inpatient and unresponsive or provide too much stimulation.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment: child is fearful of caregiver, shows confusion, or other disorganized behaviors (eg. greeting mother when she returns but then turning away from her. 80% of infants mistreated by caregivers show this attachment. Have increased risk for hostile, aggressive behavior, low self esteem and low academic achievement in childhood.
Adult Attachment interview
Relationship between parent’s own attachment experiences and attachment of their children
Autonomous: parents give coherent descriptions of their relationships with their parents on interview. These tend to have children with secure attachment.
Dismissing: parents give a positive description but don’t have evidence to support it or have some contradicting memories. Their children tend to be avoidant.
Preoccupied: give angry description or confused. Their children tend to have a resistant/ambivalent attachment.
Patterson’s coercive family interaction model
Posits that a) children learn aggressive behaviors from parents who rarely reinforce pro social behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward aggressive behavior with attention and approval; b) aggressive-parent child interactions escalate.
Parents use coercive forms of discipline: family has high levels of stress, have certain personality characteristics, child has difficult temperament;
Social cognitive factors to aggression
Posits that aggressive children differ from less aggressive ones in a) their self-efficacy beliefs (it is easy to perform aggressive acts but difficult to inhibit them); b) beliefs that aggressive acts will be followed by positive outcomes and c) they show little regret or remorse from committing aggressive acts.
Hostile attribution bias: interpret acts of others as being intentionally hostile
Heteronomous morality (Piaget)
Children 7 to 10 years old. They believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable.
The greater the negative consequences, the worse the act is… used to determine if an act is right or wrong… along with whether a rule has been violated.
Autonomous morality (piaget)
11 years old. View rules are arbitrary and alterable when ppl who are governed by them agree to change them.
When judging act, focus more on intention of the actor rather than on consequences.
Kohlberg’s levels of moral development
Preconventional morality: punishment/obedience orientation: the goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences. Act to avoid punishment
Instrumental hedonism: act to get reward
Conventional morality: transition at age 10 to 11; good girl good boy orientation: the right act is the one that is approved by others.
Law and order orientation: judgments are based on rules and laws established by authority figures.
Postconventional morality: transition late adolescent to adulthood; morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws: right actions are those that are consistent with democratically determined laws which can be changed if interfere with basic human rights.
Morality of individual principles of conscience: right and wrong based on self-chosen universally applicable ethical principles.
Diminished capacity to parent (divorce)
Many parents experience a diminished capacity to parent following divorce. For mothers who have custody, they often monitor children less, more impatient, uncommunicative, less warm and consistent, more authoritarian. Experience lower income and feel lonely.
Custodial fathers have similar problems but often adjust more quickly than custodial mothers.
Non custodial fathers become more permissive; their visits decline in number after the first few months.
Effects of divorce
Child’s age: children who are in preschool experience greater negative outcomes initially than older children. But later on, older children experience worse outcomes than younger children.
In general, the effects of divorce on children are most profound during the first year after divorce.
Sleeper effect: girls who were in preschool or elementary school during time of divorce, do not show negative consequences until adolescence. As young adults, at higher risk for depression and anxiety about betrayal and abandonment in romantic relationships, more likely to see a psychologically unstable partner, and getting divorced themselves.
Adjustment is better when children have frequent reliable contacts with non custodial parent but lack of parental conflict after divorce is more important than contact with non custodial parent.
It is parental conflict, rather than divorce, that increases worse outcomes for children.
Remarriage
Children in intact families have better outcomes than children in stable family with a stepparent. But this difference has small effect size .17. This is even lower when controlling for factors such as SES, child adjustment problems before remarriage, etc.
Remarriage leads to worse outcomes in children who are 9 years or older. Research on gender and remarriage is inconsistent.
Stepfathers are often less engaged than real fathers. Authoritative parenting style by stepparent leads to better outcomes.
Effects of maternal employment
Benefits outweighs the costs, especially for older children. In lower SES families, sons of working mothers have higher cognitive scores compared to sons in higher SES families.
Maternal employment most likely to have a negative effect for boys if it is combined with poor child monitoring and supervision.
Gay or lesbian parent
Research shows that it is more about the quality of the parent-child relationship than the sexual orientation of the parents. Children of gay and lesbian parents do just as well and parents skills of gay and lesbian parents is similar or even superior.
Child sexual abuse
No clear consensus on differences between gender. Some studies say it more heavily impacts girls vs boys. Effects less severe when abuse committed by stranger vs family member or familiar person.
Sibling relationships
Middle school childhood marked by conflict/closeness among siblings. Sibling rivalry most intense during these years when sibligings 1.5 to 3 years apart, same gender, and parents provide inconsistent discipline. In later adulthood, those who were close get even closer. Those who were hostile become even more hostile.
Rejected and neglected children
Rejected-aggressive: impulsive, hostile, hyperactive, difficulty regulating negative emotions.
Rejected withdrawn children: more likely to be bullied, have high social anxiety
Neglected children: like to be alone, rarely engage in disruptive behavior. Do not report being particularly lonely or unhappy.
Rejected children have worse outcomes. Express greater loneliness and peer dissatisfaction.
Socioemotional selectivity theory
Motivational process underlying the changes in quality and quantity of our friendships. Determined by how we see time as limited or unlimited. If unlimited, we have knowledge oriented goals and focus on making new and more friends.
If limited, we focus on emotion based goals so focus on forming close friendships and are selective of our partners.
Generally, as we grow older, we see time as being more limited.
Empty nest
Marital satisfaction increases when children leave the home
Self fulfilling prophecy (rosenthal) effect
Teachers expectations about a student can influence their academic achievement due to differences in how teacher behaviors towards student
Teacher feedback
There are differences in how teachers provide feedback to male and female students. Female students are more criticized about intellectual ability and praised about their dependent behaviors, effort, cooperation. Male students are more criticized for inattention, failure to do work neatly, but praised for intellectual abilities.
This may help account academic gaps in gender.
Compensatory preschool programs
Like head start for economically disadvantaged children. Initial iq gains diminish but long term rewards are great. These children are more likely to attend college, less likely to drop out, repeat a grade, better attitude towards school, reduced pregnancy and drug use and delinquency.
Montessori method
Learning stems from sense perception. Child-centered; learning is experiential and children advance at their own pace.
Classical conditioning
Pavlov… bell plus meat power = dog salivating. After a while bell = dog salivating.
Unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus is meat power and unconditioned response is salivating
Conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus is bell and condition response is salivation after it is paired with conditioned stimulus.
Classical extinction
When you keep showing Cs and cr without us eventually the pairing will decay.
Spontaneous recovery
Seems extinction has occurred but then tehre is a weak CR. Learning is never lost but merely inhibited.
Experimental neurosis
If you try to do stimulus discrimination with two things that are too similar, it can cause this which results in aggression, restlessness, agitation
Stimulus discrimination
The opposite of stimulus generalization. To do this, you need to present cs with us lots of times and similar things to cs without us lots of times.
Higher order conditioning
When you pair a cs to cr then you introduce a second neutral stimulus so you do cs, ns, then cr until ns becomes another cs.
Blocking vs overshadowing
When you present cs and ns at the same time, ns will not be paired with cr.
Overshadowing is when you present two ns at the same time and both cause cr. But, when presented separately, only one will cause CR.
Reciprocal inhibition
If a response that does not produce anxiety is paired with thing that produces anxiety then there is a complete or partial suppression of anxiety response and original pairing is weakened
Systematic desensitization
A hierarchy of anxiety provoking things paired with relaxation.
Has four stages:
1) relaxation training
2) construct anxiety hierarchy
3) desensitization in imagination
4) in vivo desensitization
Dismantling strategy
Trying to figure out which aspect of systematic desensitization is effective. Turns out is not the pairing with incompatible response or the gradual hierarchy parts. It’s the pairing of a cs without a us repeatedly which leads to extinction.
In vivo aversion therapy
Pair an aversive stimulus with CS. For example nausea inducting drug to help target alcohol addiction. Has high rate of relapse and limited generalizability. Works best when aversive stimulus is closet to CS. Also works best with booster sessions.
Covert sensitization
When therapist asks client to imagine cs and aversive behavior. Like imagine smoking and getting sick. Then imagine not smoking and feeling pleasure.
In vivo exposure with response prevention
Most effective when includes both components.
Prolonged exposure more effective than short exposures
High anxiety provocation during exposure nto necessary. Taking a tranquilizer has been found to be even more effective.
Self-directed exposure can be as effective than therapist directed.
Group exposure is effective.
Interoceptive exposure used for panic attacks.
EMDR
Works but due to being an imagine exposure technique and has nothing to do with eye movements.
Thorndike law of effect
Positive consequences increase behavior but negative consequences have not effect.
Operant conditioning
Skinner positive and negative punishment and reinforcement
Reinforcement
Increases behavior. Negative and positive as determined by adding or taking away stimulus
Punishment
Decreases behavior. Positive and negative as determined by adding or taking away stimulus.
Operant extinction
Stop reinforcing and behavior gradually decreases
Extinction (response) burst
If you stop reinforcing the behavior will initially increase before it decreases
Continuous schedule vs intermittent schedule
The fastest way to acquire a behavior is continuous schedule but best way to keep a behavior is intermittent schedule
FI- low rates of responding. Likely hourly wage. Stop work and start again towards near of interval.
VI: steady but relatively low response rate. Like pop quizzes.
FR: high and steady response rate. Piecework is an example.
VR: highest rates of responses and also most resistant to extinction. Gamblers playing slot machines.
Matching law
If you have two things that give rewards at different intervals, then the frequency of behavior will be greater for shorter interval
Stimulus control
When discriminative behavior is affected by presence of discriminative stimuli.
Baby cries in presence of mother but no father.
Escape conditioning
Behavior increases because its performance allows the organism to escape and undersirable stimulus.
Avoidance conditioning
There is a cue then perform behavior to avoid aversive stimulus.
Satiation
Reinforcer has lost its reinforcement value. More likely to happen with primary vs secondary reinforcers, especially generalized secondary reinforcers. And continuous vs intermittent schedules.
Thinning
When you go from continuous schedule to intermittent schedule
Prompts vs fading
Prompts verbal or physical facilitate acquisition of behavior. If a father tells child to clean room, that command is a prompt that praise will follow. When prompts are gradually removed that is called fading.
Shaping vs chaining
Shaping is when you reinforce behaviors that get you closer to target behavior. Chaining is just a sequence of events that leads to reinforcer. Such as baking a cake process leads to eating a cake.
Premack principle
Using a high frequency behavior to reinforce a low frequency behavior. Like if child likes to watch tv use that to reinforce studying.
Differential reinforcement
Combines reinforcement with extinction. You reinforce other behaviors to reduce a target behavior. Like reinforce playing with toys to decrease hand movements.
Habituation
When punishment loses its effectiveness. So this caused by weak punishment then increasing its intensity. Best is to apply moderate punishment. Too strong leads to avoidance, aggressiveness, etc.
Overcorrection
Involves restitution- where you address the consequences of the behavior. If you overturn beds, you make up the beds.
Positive practice: practice more appropriate behaviors
Response cost
Is a form of negative practice. Negative practices is where you do the behavior so many times it becomes aversive.
Response cost is like late fee when you don’t pay bill, or taking computer privileges away from child
Functional behavioral assessment
Conduct and assessment to determine the purpose of an undersirable behavior and identify a more desirable one. You eliminate the antecedents and consequences maintaining behavior and reinforcement antecedents and consequences of new behavior.
Latent learning (tolman)
He did rat experiment. Three groups ran a maze. Group a got food, group b never found food, and group c got food after 11 attempts. Group c outperformed group A even though they didn’t get food throughout and shows that learning occurs even without a reinforcer. Reinforcer important but not necessary
Insight learning (kohler)
Ah ha learning. Due to perceptual change.
Observational learning (bandura)
When you learn from observing others. Boys more likely to imitate boys, both boys and girls imitate verbal aggression in same way but boys more likely to imitate physical aggression. This difference decreases if reinforcers are used.
Coping model more effective than mastery model when it comes to phobias.
Guided participation and self efficacy
Important concepts in observational learning. Guided participation is when model helps learner perform the behavior. Helps increase self efficacy.
Learned helplessness model and reformulated version
Attribute cause of negative events to themselves, believe they always cause negative events, think they cause negativity.
Even newer model: says attributions are important but only to the extent to which they contribute to hopelessness
Rational emotive behavior therapy
ABC chain of events: event occurs, belief about event, consequences (emotions and behaviors).
D: therapist tries to dispute irrational beliefs
E: new beliefs formed by client
Cognitive therapy: schemas, automatic thoughts, collaborative empiricism, Socratic dialogue)
Schemas are underlying cognitive structures that consist of core beliefs, revealed in automatic thoughts, and supported by cognitive distortions. Develop early in life and may be dormant until a stressor.
Collaborative empiricism is when therapist and client collaborate and form hypotheses about clients beliefs and assumptions which can be tested.
Socratic dialogue - guided discovery designed to help client reach logical conclusions.
Self instructional training
To help impulsive and hyperactive children perform academic and other tasks successfully. Start by seeing model say instructions outloud then client does this while model says instructions outloud then client says instructions outloud then client whispers, and then client says it covertly.
Self control therapy
Usually group therapy. Three phases: self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self reinforcement; therapy focuses on these three stages.
Lewinsohn’s behavioral model
Behaviors that are not reinforced are extinguished. If client is bad at obtaining reinforcement or just has inadequate reinforcing stimuli in environment, then the person has low rate of response contingent reinforcement. this leads to depression this also elicits low self esteem pessimism; txt is behavioral activation.
Biofeedback
Used to modify physiological behaviors (heart rate, skin temp, blood glucose)… connect client to eeg or emg to get immediate feedback when instructed to do something. Used to treat tension headaches.
As effective as relaxation training but the treatment of choice for certain disorders like Reynaud’s disease (temp control)
Pelvic muscle biofeedback to help with urinary and fecal incontinence.
Thermal biofeedback plus autogenic training best for migraine headaches
Information processing model (sensory memory, STM, LTM)
One of two models explaining memory. Consists first of sensory memory. Can store a great deal of info from senses but only lasts for a few seconds.
When sensory memory becomes focus of attention,it goes to STM and lasts for 30 seconds. Short term memory capacity is btw 5 to 9 units. Consists of primary memory and working memory.
Converting STM to LTM memory depends on type of rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is best which involves linking new info to old info.
Serial position effect
Ppl remember words from beginning and end of list. If there is a delay, then ppl remember first part of list.
Levels of processing model
Differences in memory due to differences in depths of processing: structural, phonemic, semantic
Semantic leads to greatest amount of recal
Procedural vs declarative memory vs prospective memory
Part of LTM. Procedural is how to do something. Declarative is facts. Further divided into episodic and semantic memory. Semantic is facts. Episodic is events that you have experienced. Flashbulb memories are episodic.
Prospective memory is ability to remember to do things in future. Older adults actually have better of this memory bc they are more likely to use external stimuli like calendar and lists.
Multi-component model
Working memory consists of central executive and phonological loop, visou-spatial sketch pad, and episodic buffer.
Trace decay theory
Has to do with forgetting; learning produces a trace and this decays overtime due to not using it. But there are examples of memories that are remembered even after a long time of not using it so it is believed that forgetting is more so due to interference than to trace decay.
Interference theory (retroactive interference vs proactive interference)
People forget because of new or old information that is acquired. Retroactive learning new material interferes with the recall of old material
Proactive when old learning interferes with learning of recall of new material. (Review this)
Mnemonic devices (method of loci, keyword method, acronym, acrostic)
Method of loci: place things to remember in visual imagery of room in different places in room then walk through room to remember items.
Keyword method: link together two words like visual book on leaf to remember livre;
Acrostic: create a phrase from each letter of a word
Yerkes Dodson law
Level of arousal and efficiency of learning and perfomance is u shaped. Moderate level of arousal is best.
The more difficult task, the lower the optimal level of arousal.
Client welfare
Always the most important is welfare of the client over non-clients, colleagues, and the profession of psychology
Pro bono services
Recommended but not required by ethics code
Ethical violations by colleagues
Attempt to resolve informally unless it cause substantial harm or attempt to resolve informally did not work, you report.
Substantial harm might include plagiarism, sexual misconduct, insurance fraud.
Client confidentiality always takes precedence.
Complainants or respondents
Cannot deny promotion, tenure, etc if part of a pending case but can after the outcome.
Competence
Psychologists must provide services in areas which they have competence.
If working with new population, they must obtain proper training, consultation and minimize harm.
If they are asked to provide services and there is no one else available, they can provide services if they have close training and makes reasonable effort to obtain new training and skills.
If in an emergency, psychologist may provide services but should discontinue after emergency is done or when appropriate services are available.
If using new or experimental technique, client must be made aware of this and special care must be taken to protect client from harm.
Vicarious liability
Supervisors are responsible for supervisee.
Personal problems
Must avoid doing therapy if I know my personal problems will impact that therapy. Must take reasonable measures when it seems like my personal problems might impact therapy.
Sexual harassment
A severe act or multiple persistent acts; for ambiguous situations use “unreasonable” bc reaction of the victim determines if behavior is bad or not. If victim says no and person continues with the behavior, then that is sexual harassment.
Multiple relationships
Some multiple relationships are allowed. For example, if you live in small town and that person is the only one who offers a service you need to use. But only if it won’t cause harm or risks.
Should coniser: power differential, duration of the relationship, clarity of termination
Informed consent
Must meet these conditions: capacity, comprehension, and voluntariness
Assent
Informed consent from minor or someone who can’t give consent.
Confidentiality vs privacy vs privilege vs holder of the privilege
Client is holder of the privilege. Privilege is leave concept that protects client’s confidentiality in the context of legal proceedings.
Privacy is right to share info without sharing it with others. Confidentiality is obligation of psychologists to protect clients from unauthorized disclosures.
Child abuse
Duty to report child abuse. But don’t have to if victim is an adult in most jurisdictions unless reason to believe the perpetration is still causing harm.
Consultation
Can consult with other professionals but only reveal enough information. To reveal confidential information, need client permission unless client identity can be disguised.
Client testimonials
Cannot solicit testimonials. Clients can give them if they want.
In person solicitation
Cannot engaged in uninvited solicitation… like follow the police and give out business cards. But can give out business cards if invited to do so.
Client access to records
Institutions possess records but clients have right to see them. They have right to see PHI but therapists do not have to share psychotherapy notes.
In terms of educational records, parents of child can request to see records and challenge their contact or they can’t share records without parents permission but there are some exceptions. Parents cannot see personal notes that is in conjunction of treatment with student.
Collection agency
If a client has not paid for services as agreed upon, therapist may use collection agency but only after notifying client and giving him a chance to pay.
Barter
Barter may be acceptable as long as it is not clinically contraindicated or exploitative. For example, can’t exchange therapy for childcare.
Referral fees and sliding fee scales
Referral fees are allowed but not for the actual referral. If you refer and colleague uses your office to see your referral, you can charge for office use.
Sliding fee scales are allowed.
Education and supervision
Act competently, not misrepresent; cannot require a student to disclose personal information unless stated in adimissions or if student is a threat to others or if problem is interfering with performance. Required to provide feedback
Sexual relationships with students or supervises
Not allowed but allowed if student is another department is a former student.
Informed consent for research
There are essential parts to a consent form. Some situations where not necessary to obtain consent: not cause har, is part of normal practice, anonymous survey, permitted by law.
Deception
Only used when necessary and these conditions are met: justified by contribution to the science, will not be deceived about things that can cause physical pain or severe emotional distress, participants will be debriefed at conclusion of participation but no later than end of data collection.
Publication credit
Should be determined according to contribution
Test data
Raw data… therapists normally provide test data to client but may refrain from doing so to protect the patient from substantial harm or misuse or misperception of the data. But must do so in ways consistent with law. HIPAA limits ability to not share data only to situations in which access to the data is likely to endanger the life or physical safety of the client.
Scoring and interpretation services
When giving a score, must provide and explanation with it. Can use interpretation services but need to choose them based on their validity and also need to provide lots of info about them.
Obsolete tests
Have to make sure that test results are not based on obsolete tests (outdated) or that the results are not yet outdated.
Informed consent for therapy
Gotta share all the usual info, nature of therapy,fees, limits to confidentiality, also gotta state you are supervisee and how supervisor is. If therapy is new, gotta state this and alternative to txt etc.
Services from other mental health professionals
Okay if in clients best interest. But cooperate and coordinate with other therapist. Makes sense if it is to treat separate issues. May not be in clients best interests to treat same issues.
Sexual intimacies
Not allowed to provide therapy to someone you have had a sexual relationship with. Not allowed to engage in sexual relationship with a client for two years and even after it should be for very unusual circumstances. Also can have sexual relationship with ppl who are close to the client
General guidelines for providers of psychological services
Aspirational… meant to provide self-regulation in the public interest to improve quality, effectiveness, and accessibility of psychological services.
Guidelines for providers of psych services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations; guidelines for forensic psychologists, guidelines for child custody evaluations
K
EPPP
Requirement for licensure assesses the knowledge that most recent practice analysis has determined as foundational to the competent practice of psychology
Insanity
Basis of criminal defense; not guilty by reason of insanity
Competence to stand trial
Lacks sufficient present ability to consult with lawyer
Fact witness
Cannot offer his opinion
Expert witness
Can offer opinion
Malpractice
Plaintiff must establish that there is standard of care and therapist deviated from it; four conditions must be met:
A) plaintiff must have had a professional relationship with therapist
B) there must be a demonstrable standard of care that therapist breached.
C) plaintiff suffered harm or pain
D) plaintiff suffered harm or pain from therapist breach of standards.
Responding to a subpoena
1) determine if it is legally valid
2) if it is, contact the client to discuss implications
3) if client consents and there are not other reasons to withhold, then do it
4) if client doesn’t consent then can attempt to negotiate with other party. If other party persists, can see guidance from court, or file a motion to quash, or file a motion for a PÓ
Sexual misconduct by psychotherapists
One of most common reasons of misconduct. Therapists who do this usually male, older than client, and older in general. Incidence decreasing over years.
Cost analysis
Optimal allocate of financial resources; There are many types. See book.
Avoiding bias in language
Refer to rules in book
Neuron, action potential, all or none principle
NEUROGENSIS in hippocampus and caudate nucleus.
Action potential: electrical impulse that travels quickly through cell. Cell is normally negative then dendrites receive sufficient stimulation which changes balance of cell and becomes less negative because sodium channels open and potassium comes in.
All or nothing is that cell fires at same intensity after certain threshold.
Acetylcholine
Found in peripheral and central nervous systems. In periphereal, causes muscles to contract.
In central, involved in REM sleep, sleep-wake cycle, and learning and memory.
Underlying memory deficits in Alzheimer’s
Serotonin
Has an inhibitory effect.
Mood hunger temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression and migraine headache
High levels: schizophrenia, autistic, food restriction anorexia,
Low levels: aggression depression suicide bulimia, ptsd, ocd
GABA
Inhibitory…
Play a role in vision, eating, anxiety disorders, seizure, motor control, and sleep
Low levels: anxiety disorders, motor sxs in Huntington’s disease
Dopamine
High levels: schizophrenia, Tourette’s
Low levels: Parkinson’s
Personality mood memory and sleep
Spinal cord quadriplegia and paraplegia
In central nervous system. Communication btw peripheral and with brain, left and right sides, and control simple reflexes not controlled by brain.
Five groups: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal. If injury at cervical, then quadriplegia. If injury at thoracic, then paraplegic. Incomplete injury means you body might have sensation but not other etc.
Cerebral ventricles and hydrocephalus
Cerebral ventricles filled with fluid and when build up of fluid in ventricles, causes hydrocephalus. Schizophrenia associated with larger ventricles
Somatic nervous system
Part of peripheral nervous system; governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.
Autonomic nervous system
Associated with involuntary activities. Though can control with biofeedback, hypnosis
Sympathetic vs parasympathetic
Sympa is flight or fight response; para is relaxation and digestion and sleep
Neuroimaging techniques
CT and MRI is for structural imaging… detect tumors, blood clots
Pet, FMRI, SPECT… measure brain activity. Spect has lower resolution.
Medulla
Coordinates vital functions like breathing, heartbeat, if damaged, usually fatal
Cerebellum
Balance and posture; abnormalities linked to adhd, schizophrenia, and Austin’s
Ataxia
Slurred speech severe tremors and loss of balance… often produce by alcohol intoxication which can damage the cerebellum.
Reticular activating system
Is part of reticular formation and vital to consciousness, arousal, and wakefulness
Thalamus
Motor activity, language, memory and acts as relay station transmitting incoming sensory info to appropriate areas for all senses except olfactory.
Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome
Thiamine deficiency which causes damage to thalamus. Usually result of chronic alcoholism. Causes confusion, ataxia, abnormal eye movements the is follow by korsakoff syndrome…
Hypothalamus
Hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature, movement, emotional reactions; helps maintain homeostasis
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Located in hypothalamus and mediates sleep wake cycle and other circadian rhythms. Thought to impact SAD
Basal ganglia
Caudate nucleus, substantia negra, putamen, globus pallidus
Planning, organizing, coordinating voluntary movement
Huntington’s disease, adhd, Parkinson’s, tourretes, ocd
Amygdala; kluver Bucky syndrome
Directs motivational and emotional activities. Bilateral lesions in amygdala and temporal lobes, cause hyper sexuality, reduce fear and aggression, alter dietary habits. This patter of behaviors is called kluver bucy
Corpus callosum
Allows transference of info from one hemisphere to other
Contra lateral representation
Left hemi controls function of the right vice versa. Two exceptions: olfaction and visual field
Brain lateral i action
Know differences between left and right brain. Each side has different specialization. Left is language, speech, reading, writing, analytical
Right is spatial, non speech sounds, creative, facial recognition
Split brain
Study brain lateralization using split brain patients who had procedure done due to seizures. Know examples. If show split brain patient something in left field, can use left hand but not right to pick it up and can’t name it. If show in right field, can name it and can use left hand but not right.
Frontal lobe
Primary motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, Broca’s area
Broca’s area
Motor speech. Damage to this area results in broca’s aphasia which is difficulties producing spoken and written language.
Prefrontal cortex
Memory, attention, self-awareness, higher order functioning
Reduced metabolism = adhd, schizophrenia, dementia
Parietal lobe - apraxia, anosognosia, gerstmann’s syndrome
Contains the somatosensory cortex; governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, gustation
When damage, cause apraxia which is inability to preform skilled motor movements.
Anosognosia is inability to recognize ones own sxs or disorder
Gerstmann’s syndrome is finger agnosia, left right confusion, acalculia, agraphia
Temporal lobe- wernicke’s area
Auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area
WA is important for language comprehension… lesions produce Wernicke’s aphasia, which is difficulties with language comprehension and production
Storage of long-term declarative memory
Occiptal lobe - visual agnosia, prosopagnosia
Visual cortex. Damage may produce
Apperceptive agnosia unable to perceive objects
Associative agnosia unable to recognize objects
When damage to junction of temporal, occipital and parietal lobes then prosopagnosia which is inability to recognize familiar faces.
Theories of color vision: trichromatic theory, opponent-process theory
Trichromatic suggests we have three cones representing the primary colors.
Opponent process theory suggests we have bipolar receptions and when one is excited the other is inhibited.
Depth perception and retinal disparity
Bionocular cues: close vision, depends on convergence and retinal disparity (our eyes see things from different views, and the close we get, the bigger the difference in those images)
Monocular cues: far away vision, depend on cues like relative size of objects, linear perspective, overlap of objects, movement
Gate control theory of pain
Nervous system can only process so many sensory information at one time. So when it is flooded, cells in spinal cord act as gate and block some pain signals.
Synesthesia
Hear a color, taste a shape
Psychophysical laws
Absolute threshold, minimum stimulus needed to produce a sensation
Different or just noticeable difference thershold - how much it takes to produce a difference between two stimuli
Weber’s law, fechner’s law, stevens’s power law
Weber’s law says that the more intense the stimuli, the more you need to experience differences in the stimuli
Fechner’s law: said you can determine this relationship arithmatically.
Steven’s power law: if you double brightness of lightbulb you don’t notice double the sensation (less). If you double intensity of electric shock, you notice more than twice the sensation.
Learning and memory: areas of the brain
Temporal lobe: encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories
Removal of right temporal lobe: nonverbal memory
Removal of left temporal lobe: verbal memory
Hippocampus: consolidating long-term declarative memory, also responsible for explicit memory
Amygdala: fear conditioning and adding emotions significant to memory: contributes to PTSD
Prefrontal cortex: episodic memory, false recognition,
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: working memory-schizophrenia
Thalamus: processing incoming information and sending it to cortex.
Basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex: implicit memory and procedural memory
Neural mechanisms involved in memory
Long term potentiation: causes changes in shape and number of cell dendrites, promotion new synaptic connections
Protein synthesis: requires protein/RNA to form long term memories
Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia, conduction aphasia
Broca’s is broken, Wernicke’s they speak normally but devoid of content. Can understand written or spoken language and not aware of their issues.
Conduction is due to lesion in arcuate fasciulus
Theories of emotion: James-L’ange theory, cannon-bard theory, cognitive appraisal
James-L’ange theory: your emotions are the result of your perceptions of bodily reactions (you feel fear bc your knees are shaking).
Cannon-bard theory: emotions and physical reactions happen at the same time.
Cognitive appraisal theory: based on how we interpret events, we experience emotions regardless of the actual event. But two people that have the same appraisal will have the same emotion. Three different kinds of appraisals: primary is person’s evaluation of a situation; secondary is resources person has to cope with event (e.g., social support), re-appraisal is when person monitors situation and modifies as needed secondary and primary appraisals.
Papez’s circuit
We experience emotions in hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, cingulate gyrus (límbic system).
Areas of the brain in which we experience emotion
Extended papez’s circuit to include cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus
Cerebral cortex: left side is positive emotions, right side is negative emotions… right side is dominant in the recognition and expression of emotions.
Amygdala: attaching emotion to memory; controls immediate response of fear and rage; if lesioned, the experience apathy.
Hypothalamus: translates emotions to physical reactions through the pituitary gland.
General adaptation syndrome
How we react to stress: three stages:
Alarm reaction: increases adrenaline, heart rate and respiration rise, glucose level rises, more energy
Resistance: body can’t keep the alarm reaction stage for a long time so heart rate an breathing go back to normal but continued high glucose levels and increases metabolism to break down fats and proteins. Also releases cortisol.
Exhaustion: everything begins to break down. Fatigue, depression, illness
Type A behavior pattern
Cynical or antagonistic hostility most associated with health problems
Sexual dimorphism
Brain has sex related differences and these differences are due to differential exposure to androgens during prenatal and early postnatal development
Secondary sex characteristics/hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
Secondary sex characteristics develop in puberty. This occurs through the hypothalamic etc axis
Which means that the hypothalamus releases chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland when then stimulates release of gonadal hormones.
Menopause/ hormone replacement therapy
Decreased estrogen leads to emotional and physical sxs (hot flashes, fatigue, mood swings, nausea)
Hormone replacement therapy: some increase estrogen and others increase estrogen and progesterone. Can help with mood swings, hot flashes but not effect on sex drive.
Sleep stages
5 stages
NonREM is stages 1-4
Awake is beta waves
Alpha waves when drowsy
Theta waves stages 1-2 (greater in amplitude and slower in frequency; stage 2 has spindles and k complexes)
Delta waves stages 3-4 (very slow waves, harder to wake)
REM sleep (if woken, remember vivid dreams, flaccid paralysis, resemble stages 1 and 2, physiological response resemble those of awake individuals, heart rate and breathing increase and irregular)
Sleep and age
Newborns have mostly REM sleep then develop NREM sleep; sequence begins to reverse at about 3 months. Length of REM, stage 4 sleep, and total sleep time decrease as you get older. Older adults don’t need less sleep but tend to have more trouble falling asleep, waking up in middle of night and go to bed sooner and wake up earlier
Traumatic brain injury
Close headed injury: loss of consciousness and some degree of amnesia
Open headed injury; no loss of consciousness and high specific and localized effects
Pósttraumatic amnesia
Used to determine severity of tbi. Usually anterograde amnesia. The longer it lasts, the worse. Many also experience retrograde amnesia.
Postconcussional syndrome
Pattern of somatic and psychological sxs that occur in up to half of ppl with mild brain injury. Initially its things like nausea, dizziness, blurry vision; then it is insomnia, fatigue, cognitive impairment and some psych sxs like depression and irritability
Most recover in 1-3 months;
Cérebro vascular accident
Stroke; causes contra lateral sxs. Left hemisphere damage can cause aphasia and apraxia; right side damage can cause contra lateral neglect and dressing apraxia; psych issues common with sxs most common is depression
Huntington’s disease
Hereditary. Offspring have 50% chance of getting it.
Cause cognitive (dementia), psychological (depression, anxiety, apathy) and motor (piano like fingers aka chorea) sxs. Decrease gaba and increase glutamate.
Parkinson’s disease
Less dopamine; positive and negative sxs; depression is common even before motor sxs.
Seizures
Generalized seizures:
Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizure: loss of consciousness and rigid body and tremors; depression
Absence seizures: loss of consciousness without motor sxs (eye blinking)
Partial seizures: start in one side of brain and affect one side of body
Complex partial seizure: loss of consciousness
Simple partial seizure: no loss of consciousness
Hypertension
Primary hypertension is when there is no known causes. Most common. Mild and moderate cases can be treated with biofeedback and relaxation and most effective when combined with breathing training.
Migraine headache
Severe, recurrent throbbing headache. More common in females. Been linked to low serotonin levels
Hyperthyroidism vs hypothyroidism
Hyper is speed up metabolism, elevated body temp. Heat intolerance, increased appetite and weight loss, higher heart rate, agitation, emotional liability, fatigue, insomnia, and reduced attention span
Hypo is slowed metabolism and weight gain, lower body temp, depression, apathy, decreased libido, confusion, impaired concentration and memory
Hypoglycemia
Increased insulin which causes anxiety, depression, confusion, hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision
Aka low blood glucose
Effects of psychoactive drugs
Agonists: produce similar effects to those produced by neurotransmitters; direct and indirect agonists
Inverse agonists: produce opposite effect of those produced by neurotransmitters
Partial agonists: produce similar effects to those of a neurotransmitter but to a lesser extent
Antagonists: do not produce any effects on their own but block neurotransmitters or agonists from producing an effect
Traditional antipsychotics
Mostly for schizophrenia; good for positive sxs but less effective for negative sxs; block dopamine receptors (D2);anticholinergic effects (dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation…) tolerance develops within a few weeks for these side effects.
Extrapyramidal side effects: Tardive dyskinesia is most serious of these effects; more common in females and older patients (involuntary rhythmic movements of the jaw, lips, tongue, and extremities) can improve when drug is gradually withdrawn
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: can be fatal; muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, altered consciousness
Atypical psychotics
Includes clozapine, respiridone
Treat schizophrenia; clozapine can treat bipolar that does not respond to mood stabilizers; treatment both positive and negative sxs; slower onset than traditional antipsychotics
Act on D4 and other dopamine receptors and others like serotonin and glutamate
Cause anticholinergic effects and neuroleptic malignant syndrome but less likely to cause tardive dyskensia.
Tricyclics
Imipramine, clomipramine; particularly useful for treating vegetative, somatic sxs of depression (decreased weight and appetite, sleep problems, psychomotor retardation, anhedonia)
Antiagonists: block reputake of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine
Cause carditoxic sxs; overdose can be lethal
SSRIs
Fluoxetine, sertraline; particularly effective for melancholic depression
Antiagonists: block reuptake of serotonin
Less cardio toxic, safer fro overdose, less likely to produce cognitive impairment; no anticholinergic effects
MAOIs
Most effective for treating non-endogenous atypical depression with anxiety
Inhibit Mona mine oxidase so increase strength of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Side effects: hypertensive crisis caused by taking other foods or drugs with tyramine. Cause severe headache, stiff neck, rapid heart rate, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and sensitivity to light
Mood stablizing drugs (lithium and carbamazepine)
Lithium: cause gastrointestinal side effects that later subside; most serious side effect is possible toxicity which can lead to death… levels must be regularly monitored.
Carbamazepine: originally an anticonvulsant drug; good for bipolar; contraindicated for people with heart problems, blood monitoring is needed
Sedative hypnotics
Include barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol.
They are CNS depressants; at high doses cause coma and death; cause tolerance and physical and psychosocial dependence; effects are synergistic (can’t use multiple of them at once)
Barbiturates are dangerous; can improve sleep initially but then sleep gets worse;
Benzodiazepines: anxiolytic (diazepam); used to treat anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, and other disorders that involve muscle spasms
Agonists that stimulate GABA; cause psychological dependence and withdrawal is severe
Beta blockers
Propranolol. Used to treat high blood pressure and other cardio disorder but also helpful with anxiety
They block the receptors that respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine; potentially lethal for ppl with certain respiratory problems and should be prescribed to ppl with obstructive pulmonary disease and should not be discontinued abruptly
Narco-analgesics (opioids)
Used as analgesics, txt for diarrhea and cough suppressants
Cause euphoria then feeling of tranquility
Opioid receptors in body so means body produces similar substances
Causes tolerance and psychological and physical dependence. Overdose can lead to death
Methadone used to treat physical dependence without psychological feel good feelings
Methylphenidate pscyhostimulant
Used to treat ADHD in kids and adults
Potentiate relapse of norepinephrine and dopamine and block their reuptake
Higher doses may cause growth suppression (but usually temporary); drug holidays can be helpful to help with side effects and ensure that the drug is needed
Contraindicated for ppl with substance abuse, history’s of tourrettes in family, individuals with anxiety
Anti alcohol drugs
Antabuse and naltrexone
Naltrexone is opioid receptor antagonist meaning it blocks the receptors that produce feel good alcohol feelings
Schemata
Organized interconnected mental networks of information that are based on prior personal and social experiences and helps us process new information and form judgments. I have a schema for supervisor
Pseudopatients (Rosehen study)
He asked 8 conferedates to admit themselves to psych ward. They acted normally once there and all but one were diagnosed with schizophrenia. In conclusion, the ppl judge others based on the context in which they are in
Fundamental attribution bias
We overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors. Person is rude because he is that one and not bc of a bad day… because we believe in a just world
Actor-observer effect
Opposite from fundamental attribution bias when we judge our own behavior. We think they are more due to situation factors than dispositional factors. This difference is the actor observe effect
Self serving bias
We think bad consequences are due to external factors and positive consequences are due to dispositional factors
Ppl who are depressed exhibit learned helplessness (failures due to internal, stable, global factors)
Base rate fallacy
Ppl don’t pay attention to base rates. But controversy. Some say this fallacy is a fallacy
Confirmation bias
Pay attention to information that confirms one’s beliefs and ignore information that does not
Misery loves miserable company
High anxious ppl in a high anxious situation choose to wait with other high anxious people or when given choice to be alone or with non anxious ppl they chose to be alone.
Gender differences in affiliation
Women spend more time in conversation, have closer friends, more likely to engage in public. Female friends depend most on verbal communication and disclosure while males on shared activities.
Law of attraction
We prefer ppl with similar attitudes
Gain loss effect
We like those who like us but this is maximized when person originally didn’t like us but then started to like us.
Emotion in relationship model
We have an innate mechanism that produces strong emotions when something unexpected happens (like infidelity) in a close relationship. Also states that we more experience more positive emotions in beginning of relationships when things are more surprising and novel.
Social exchange theory
Why we stay in relationships? This states that it is due to costs and rewards. When rewards are greater than costs, we stay in relationship. More true for acquaintances, strangers, business than family and friends.
Equity theory
When they believe their input/outcome proportion is similar to the other persons
Barnum effect
Tendency for ppl to accept vague descriptions as being about themselves (aka horoscopes)
Self-perception theory, epinephrine studies
When internal cues are insufficient, ppl use external cues to acquire information about themselves.
Epinephrine studies: gave ppl epinephrine, 3 groups: ignorant, knowledgeable, misinformed. Confederate acted angry or euphoric. Ignorant and minsformed groups acted same way but knowledgeable group did not. Conclusion: ppl look at cues in external environment to identify their internal states.
Overjustification hypothesis
When external reward is given to person for performing an intersincially rewarding thing, that intrinsic reward decreases
Soccer players and salary
Social comparison theory
We compare ourselves to others. Usually to people who are like us. But sometimes a downward comparison occurs when evaluating negative traits.
Self verification theory
Once self concept is formed, we use behavioral and cognitive strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with our self-concept. We tend to like ppl who provide information that confirms our self concept. Like ppl with negative self concept were even more committed to relationship after partner confirmed that having a self concept.
Self monitoring
Need and ability to mange the impressions ppl have of them. Ppl high are most concerned about public self. Ppl low are most concerned about private self
Hardiness
Why are some ppl resilient: commitment (a sense of purpose and involvement), challenge (openness to new experiences and change), and control (belief that one has the ability to manage life’s events)
Auto kinetic effect
Perceptual phenomenon: stationary light appears to move in darkened room. Person asked how much it moved. If other ppl in room, ppl tend to conform to the others’ answers. Less likely to conform if at least one person doesn’t conform and if there is a way to provide anonymous answers.
Obedience to authority
Miligram’s experiments. Ppl generally obey even if it means causing harm to others. Less likely to obey depending on circumstances. Like being closer to the learner, the setting, how the experimenter delivered commands (aka phone vs in person in room)
Minority influence
Initially appear deviant, incompetent, unreasonable etc. but must maintain a consistent position and remain clear and firm without appearing rigid or dogmatic.
Psychosocial reactance
When social influence causes a person to feel a loss of freedom, the person responds with the opposite reaction.
When censoring a message, ppl have a greater desire to hear the message and changing attitudes to align with message.
Bases of social power
Coercive: punishment
Reward: reward
Expert: is an expert in topic
Referent: like the person: leads to identification
Legitimate: target person believes influencing agent has legitimate authority
Informational: influencing agent holds information important to target person
The expert, legitimate, and informational most likely to lead to internalization.
Theory of planned behavior
Attitudes are acccurate predictors of behavior when measuring:
Person’s attitude toward engaging in behavior
What the person thinks others think he or she should do
The person’s perceived behavioral control
Characteristics of the communicator (credibility, trustworthiness)
Credibility: high credible communicators more persuasive but this effect decreases overtime and effect of low credible communicator increases because of sleep effect where ppl remember teh message but forget the source.
Trustworthiness: ppl seen are more trustworthy when they are arguing against their best interests.
Characteristics of the communication (level of discrepancy, primacy effect, recency effect, accidental messages)
Level of discrepancy: is when the message and attitude differ a moderate amount is when most persuasive. But this also changes according to credibility of the communicator. More credible communicators, messages more persuasive when somewhat larger discrepancy.
Order of the message: primacy effect when both arguments presented one after the other; recency effect when delay between both arguments
Accidental messages: more credible bc communicator seems as more persuasive
Cognitive dissonance
When we experience two incompatible cognitions, to relieve this discomfort, ppl change their attitudes or behaviors, or ppl may downplay the important of the inconsistency
Balance theory
If I like someone and they dislike something i like, then I will experience in balance. To fix this, I will change my attitude.
Elaboration likelihood model
Central route: occurs if listening is in neutral or negative mood, is motivated to listen, the message is interesting, and can process the message; persuasion relies on quality of argument
Peripheral route: when listener is in positive mood, unmotivated, uninterested in message, and can’t process the message; persuasion depends on quantity and on presence of persuasive cues such as attractiveness and status of communicator.
Social judgment theory
Three categories of judgment by which we evaluate persuasive messages:
Acceptance, non-commitment, rejection
We are most likely to be persuaded when message is within latitude of acceptance (with range which we find acceptable).
Latitudes depend on ego involvement. The more ego involved, the larger range of reject and smaller range of acceptance and non-commitment
Attitude innoculation
If we listen to our argument before listening to the message, we are less likely to be persuaded.
Frustration aggression hypothesis
Aggression is the consequence of frustration… but not a clear relationship between the two so modified to say that frustration sets the stage for aggression (aggression arousal) but that in addition you also need external aggressive cues (e.g., participants who were angry administered high levels of shock in the presence of a weapon than non threatening object.
Social learning theory
Aggression is due to modeling behavior (bobo doll experiment). More likely to imitate if model is familiar, likable, same gender, powerful, successful, or get a reward.
Effects of media on aggression
Watching Aggressive tv shows does increase aggression… also increases attitudes towards aggression, overestimating that one will be victim to aggression, and greater support for harsher corporal punishment.
Effects of pornography
Violent porn leads to increased aggressive behaviors towards women an more violent attitudes
Desindividuation model
People act more aggressively if they are anonymous.
Prison study
Impact of social roles in aggression
Catharsis hypothesis
Not supported
Levels of racism
Cultural racism, institutional racism, interpersonal racism, internalized racism
Institutional is key to reduce other types of racism
Symbolic modern racism
Deny obvious forms of prejudice and racism but believe that the social and economic problems of minorities is due ot their characteristics (don’t work hard enough). These people are against affirmative action, welfare, etc.
Contact hypothesis
One way to reduce prejudice is to encourage contact between majority and minority groups but must meet four conditions: must have equal status, provided with opportunities to disconfirm stereotypes, contact must be sanctioned by law, require inter group cooperation to achieve mutual goals.
Cooperation: Robber’s cave study; superordinate goals
Boys were put in cave and dived into two groups where researchers increased hostility between the two groups. They then tried strategies to help the two groups cooperate. Only thing that was was introductions superordinate goals were both groups had to cooperate to achieve the goal
Jigsaw method
Works for increasing cooperation. In education, you split the class into two groups and one group depends on the other to learn new information. Increases performance of minority groups and also possibly of majority groups or at least they do as well.
Bystander apathy
Ppl don’t help when there is an emergency… increase when: emergency situation is non ambiguous, at least one other person has stopped to help, feels responsible or competent to help, uncrowded environment.
Field theory
Every psychological event is the result of the person and his social and physical envionment
Intraindividual conflict
Three levels of conflict
Approach approach: choose between two equally desirable things. Easiest
Avoidance avoidance: choose between two negative things
Avoidance approach: hardest. Choose something that has both positive and negative qualities
Double approach avoidance: my situation. Hardest to resolve
Zeigarnik effect
We have better memory for incomplete than completed tasks. This is because of a psychic tension. Works better in non stressful conditions.
Effects of crowding
Depend on circumstances. Ppl enjoy crowding in certain arousing situations.
Density intensity hypothesis
Depends on individuals need for personal space which difference by gender and culture. Men require more personal space than women.
Perception of control and being warned about crowding helps
Most likely affects performance on complex tasks.
Job analysis vs job evaluation
Job analysis is used to determine requirements of job and job evaluation is use to determine comparable worth or pay of the job.
Criterion contamination
When actual criterion assesses factors other than what it is intended to measure
Relative (comparative) techniques vs absolute techniques
Relative is when you compare two employees. Helps alleviate rater biases but many negatives.
Absolute is when you judge using no comparison. More subject to biases.
Paired comparison
Relative. Compare every employee to everyone else in pairs
Forced distribution
Compared employee where he is on normal distribution. Relative.
Critical incident technique
Absolute. Checklist of critical incidents taht indicate poor or outstanding techniques.
Forced choice rating scale
Consists of two to four alternatives that are considered to be about equal in desirability and rather had to choose which best or least represents employee.
Behaviorally anchored rating scale
Absolute. Identify several dimensions, then several behavioral anchors and order them from best to least and rate employee on each dimension.
Frame of reference training
Best to reduce rater biases. This is when you train raters on difference dimensions and the performance needed for those dimensions.
80% rule
To determine if a hiring process is having an adverse impact on a minority group, have to multiple the majority hiring rate by 80%
Differential validity vs unfairness
Differential validity is when the predictor does nto correlate well with criterion for one group vs the other. This means that the predictor isn’t a very good selection method.
Unfairness is when the predictor does correlate well with criterion but one group consistently scores lower than the other group.
Incremental validity, selection ration, base rate, Taylor russel table
Incremental validity is how much a predictor adds to validity hiring process. Also impacted by selection rate (ratio of applicants to job openings; the lower the better) and base rate (percent of employees performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor; moderate rates have highest chance of increasing validity). Taylor russel table used to determine percent of new hires using these things.
General mental abilities tests and biodata
Best predictors of validity coefficients and GMA is best predictor; bio data can lack face validity; bio data includes things like health, attitudes, values, economic background, etc.
Methods of training (job rotation, vestibule training, behavioral modeling)
Vestibule training is like dissecting a cadáveres (replication or simulation of work environment)
Job rotation: primarily used to train managers. When you rotate trainee to perform several jobs overtime.
Behavioral modeling: modeling by trainer, role playing, self-directed application
Four levels of criteria (Kirkpatrick)
Used to evaluate the effectiveness of training: Reaction criteria (reactions to training), learning criteria (knowledge test), behavioral criteria (change in performance when back in teh job), results criteria (value of training)
Utility analysis
Equation to determine effectiveness of training
Formative evaluation vs summative evaluation
Formative is conducted while training program is still being developed to see how it can be improved.
Summative after program has been implemented
Super (self-concept, career maturity, life career rainbow)
Job has to match self concept. We have different stages of job in teh life span. Career maturity is pserons’ ability to do the development tasks associated with a career stage; life career rainbow relates our different roles to different stages.
Holland (RIESAC, differentiation)
Believes that career best matches personality. Personality is best predictor of career when there is strong differentiation, person is high on one aspect of personality but low on others.
RIASEC: realistic, investigative, artistic ,social, enterprising, conventional
Tiedeman and O’Hara (career decision making model)
Vocation identity development is ongoing process tied to ego identity. Two phases. The anticipating phase (explores different career possibilities) and the implementation and adjustment phase (enters the work situation).
Krumboltz (social learning theory)
Focuses on promoting continual learning and self development. Career decision making is based on reinforcement theory
Dawis and Lofquist (theory of work adjustment)
Job outcomes as result of satisfaction (extent to which characteristics of the job correspond to his or her needs and values) and satisfactoriness (workers’ skills correspond to skills on the job)
Downsizing and survivor syndrome
Downsizing can have those who stay in the company experience survivor syndrome… depression anxiety
Scientific management vs human relations movement
Use scientific method to study job productivity… people are driving by money where as human relations says ppl are driving by psychological factors
Hawthorne effect
Psychological factors lead to improvement in productivity and mattered more than physical changes.
Theory x and y
Theory x manager say that their employees need to be controlled and theory y says that employees are self-directed. Theory y leads to better outcomes
Need hierarchy theory (Maslow)
Motivation is driven by 5 levels of needs. We have 5 need levels (physiological, safety, social, esteem and self actualization (not good support for this theory)
Need for achievement as it relates to job motivation
Most studied. People with this trait tend to choose moderate tasks bc they have most control over success; reinforced by money, like concrete feedback. Society with lots of these people leads to more economic growth.
Two factor theory (job enrichment vs job enlargement)
Theory of satisfaction and motivation; there are lower level needs (which includes things like pay, relationships with colleagues, etc.) these things impact dissatisfaction but nto satisfaction
There are higher level needs like recognition, achievement, etc. these things impact satisfaction but not dissatisfaction.
Not a lot of support for this because research shows a lot of factors can impact both satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
An important contribution is job enrichment which is giving an employee for challenging tasks vs enlargement is when giving an employee more tasks.
Some support for enrichment can lead to higher satisfaction but may have more impact on individuals with need for achievement.
Goal setting theory
People who commit to goals have higher motivation. But differences among individuals. Ppl with need for achievement have more motivation when they set their own goals
Most effect for specific goals and moderate level goals
Goal setting plus feedback is superior
Equity theory
Impact of social comparison on motivation. Ex doctors get paid more than psychologists for research. This leads to low motivation and satisfaction.
Expectancy theory
You are motivated when you think that working hard will lead to good performance, good perfomance will lead to rewards, and the rewards are desirable.
Worker characteristics related to job satisfaction (disposition, age, pay, turnover)
Disposition… relatively stable across jobs so not really a good predictor
Age… some mixed findings… some say linear relationship while other say U relationship
Pay… inconclusive some say important while others say it’s not about the level of pay but rather about feeling like you are being paid fairly
Turnover… high correlation with job satisfaction.
Organization commitment
Psychological attachment to the organization. Different levels. Affective commitment is found to predict the most factors like turnover, absenteeism, etc.
Continuance commitment predicts turnover only.
Leader behavior (consideration and initiating structure)
Consideration refer to warm, concern, rapport, support (person-oriented leader)
Initiating structure refers to defines, directs, and structures his role and role of team members (task-oriented)
Gender differences in leadership
Females more likely to lead a democratic decision making style
Fiedlers contingency theory
Leadership effectiveness is interaction between leader’s style and situational favorable ness
High LPC = relationship oriented
Low LPC = task oriented
Situational favorable ness is amount of influence and power a leader has
Imagine u shaped curve High LPC is in middle and low LPC on ends
Path goal theory (house)
Most effective leaders are those that help employees reach their personal goals.
Situational leadership (Hersey and Blanchard)
Four leadership styles
Task, relationship, ability, willingness dimensions
Telling, selling, participating, delegating leadership styles
Normative decision making model
Focuses on leaders decision making style
Transformational vs transactional leaders
Transformational are focused on change and use framing. Transactional are focused on stability.
Group norms (idiosyncrasy credits)
Standards of behavior… conformity to group norms is greater in ambiguous situations, when group members must work together, and when working on a problem which there is no solution
Group characteristics: when members are seen as credible and trustworthy, when the majority of the group conforms, when norms are enforced
Participation in defining norms: when group members help create the norms
When some defies group norms, it is better when they have gone a while followinggroup norms, has gained prestige, is a group leaders… this is because they have gained idiosyncrasy credits
Types of group tasks
Additive task… contributions from group members are added together
Compensatory task: inputs are averaged together to create a single product
Disjunctive task: select one of the solutions or decisions offered by one of the group members
Conjunctive task: the groups overall performance is limited by that of the worst-performing member
Discretionary task: group members decide how to combine the contributions of the members
Social loafing, social facilitation, social inhibition
Social loafing is when a member exerts less effort than would have exerted alone.
Social facilitation is when presence of others increases performance, best on tasks that are simple and well-learned.
Social inhibition is when performance decreases due to presence of others (complex or new tasks)
Stages of group development
Forming stage - attempt to establish ground rules
Storming stage - group conflict
Norming stage - members accept the group and ground rules and individual roles
Performing stage - focused on getting the job done
Adjourning stage - group disbands bc mission complete
Centralized networks vs decentralized networks
All communications must pass through a central person vs communications pass through various members; decentralized better for complex tasks; centralized more efficient for simple tasks
Models of individual decision-making (simon)
Rational-economic model- you lay out all possibilities and pick one option knowing all the information
Bounded rationality- given limited resources and time, focus on satisfying rather than maximizing. Consider solutions as they become available and settle for the one that meets minimum requirements.
Groupthink
Where members of a group all conform to the same idea. Can be tacked by leader encouraging dissenting ideas, playing devil’s advocate
Occur in highly cohesive groups when leader is highly directive and group under high stress
Group polarization
Where groups decide on a more radical idea than they would have decided alone.
Brainstorming
One way to help with group decision-making but not much supportive research.
Lewin’s force field analysis of planned change
Driving forces, resisting forces, when balanced, organization remains in status quo but when driving forces are greater than resisting forces, then there is change
3 stages to change: unfreezing, change, refreezing
To facilitate planned change: quality circles and self managed work teams
Quality circles are small groups of employees that discuss job related problems and solutions then present those solutions to management. Have a positive impact on employee attitudes
Self-managed work teams also small group of employees but they actually make hiring, budget, and other decisions that were previously made by manager.
Process consultation
A process consultant observes employees and offers recommendations for changing behaviors to improve interactions.
Total quality management
Has horizontal structure (fewer managers with more decision making encouraged) vs vertical structure… not always successful because not implemented well
Internal change agent vs external change agent
Internal one is already an employee. External is a consultant. Better to have external except downside is that that person isn’t as familiar with company.
Organizational justice
Procedural justice: fairness as to how policies are implemented
Distributive: fairness in outcomes of policies
Interactional: quality and content of person to person interactions
National culture (Hofstede)
Countries have different cultures and organizations are impacted by the national cutlure
Power distance, uncertainty, individualism, masculinity, long term orientation
Levels of organizational culture
1) observable artifacts (uniforms, etc)
2) espoused values and beliefs (norms, goals)
3) basic underlying assumptions (unconscious perceptions, thoughts, emotions)
Person organization fit
The extent to which a persons values match the organizations values. Small impact on productivity but bigger impact on satisfaction
Achieved through selection and socialization processes
Yerkes Dodson law
Arousal and performance are in a u curve with moderate levels leading to best performance. For eaSier tasks slighter higher arousal and lower arousal for more complex tasks
Demand control (job strain) model
High demand and low control leads to most stress.
Job burnout
More common among ppl wh o are inflexible about work rules and procedures
Person machine fit
Failure in performance is due to poor person machine fit.
Compressed workweek
Has positive effects on employee satisfaction and attitudes etc but no effect on performance
Flextime
Choice of when to begin and end work. HaS positive effects on satisfaction, productivity etc but not a strong effect on self-rated performance.
Work shifts
Swing shift (3-11) is worse for family and social activities. Night shift is worse for health problems. Best when ppl get to pick they want night shift. Rotation is worse than fixed shifts.
Standardization
Fixed scoring, instructions, instrument, etc so that scores collected at different times and places are comparable.
Administered to representative sample to establish norms
Norm referenced scores
Criterion reference scores
Self-referenced score
Norm is when compared examinee to those in norm group
Criterion is when you compare examinee on a domain (can have a pre established cutoff.. not necessarily comparing to self or others)
Self-reference is intraindividual comparisons
Behavioral assessment
Overt and covert behaviors (interview, observation, cognitive assessment…)
Dynamic assessment (testing the limits)
Deviation from standardized testing procedures to obtain additional information
Testing the limits is one example; do ink blot test in standardized way then after words keep asking questions to assess personality further
Actuarial predictions vs clinical predictions
Actuarial is when you use statistics like regressions to make predictions and clinical is where you use clinical judgement. Actuarial is more accurate than clinical
Crystallized intelligence vs fluid intelligence
Crystallized is like what you learn in school and facts and influenced by cultural
Fluid is not learned in school nor influenced by culture… how we solve problems
Triarchic theory (stern berg)
Analytical, creative, practical
Flynn effect
IQ increasing over the years… fluid intelligence and likely due to environmental factors but evidence that it has stopped or reversing in some countries. In US has continued for IQs 70-109 but reversed for over 110
Heredity and intelligence
A fair bit of intelligence is due to genetics. Identical twins reared together is .85 but lower if not reared together. For biological siblings reared together its .45 and .24 for reared apart
Aging and intelligence (processing speed); Seattle longitudinal study
Intelligence seems to decrease as we get older but some controversy
Likely due to decrease in processing speed as we get older (mostly after 60) which is linked to decrease in fluid intelligence
If you give an older person more time, they tend to do as well. Also possibly due to not using skills so get better with training
Seattle longitudinal study: used cross sectional and longitudinal design… found that cross sectional designs lead to findings that IQ declines after a certain age due to international effects
Before age 60, decline in perceptual speed, after 60, decline in numeric ability, and others remained stable until 70
Slope bias vs intercept bias
Bias in intelligence tests that lead to racial/ethnic differences
Slope bias = differential validity
Intercept bias = unfairness
Stanford Binet intelligence scales (SB5)
5 cognitive domains (verbal and nonverbal; visual spatial, working memory, quantitative, knowledge, fluid reasoning
Age 2-85+
Routing subtests: start with two nonverbal and verbal start at persons age or predicted ability level; functional tests then start are level slightly lower than what is determined in routing subtests
WAIS-IV
Age range 16-90
Full scale IQ plus 4 indexes: working memory, verbal comprehension, processing speed, perceptual reasoning
See page 19 for IQ scores for different disorders
WISC-V
For 6-16 years old; five indexes: working memory, processing speed, verbal comprehension, visual spatial, and fluid reasoning
Infant and preschool tests
Good to measure developmental delays and neurological impairment. Not good as predictors of later IQ
Peabody (PPVT-4)
Measures receptive vocabulary. Say a word and child picks from 4 cards which respresents the word
Leiter 3 and Raven’s progressive matrices
Culture fair measure for individuals 3-75+ measures cognitive abilities
Also culture fair measure -nonverbal measure of general intelligence
Curriculum-based measurement
Basically like the EOG… standardized validated tests used to evaluate the curriculum of the school.
ITPA-3
Psycholinguistic for children 5-12… to determine dyslexia
Multiple aptitude test batteries
Used for educational and vocational counseling but lack adequate differential validity
Strong interest inventory
Test to determine occupational interest
Self-directed search
Incorporates hollands six occupational themes (RIASEC) (test to determine interest in careers)
Provides scores on factors that determine a person’s readiness for career decision-making:
Congruence: degree of consistency between person’s expressed interested in different careers and the scores they got on the test
Coherence: degree to which persons expressed interest belong to same RIESAC categories
Consistency: correlation between person’s two strongest measured interests
Differentiation: high score on one theme and low score on others
Commonness: frequency with which persons code appeared in different normative groups
MMPI-2 (Validity scales, T-scores, Profile analysis)
Structured personality test… there are clinical scales and validity scales (scales to check if items marked at random, faking good or bad (8 of these scales)
T score of 65 or higher is clinically significant
Originally developed to facilitate differential diagnosis but is not adequate in this regard. So now used to assess personality and behavior through profile analysis. Scores on different scales lead to a code which represents a profile.
Big five personality traits
OCEAN… assessed in NEO-personality inventory-3
Came up with these by identifying traits in Webster’s dictionary and doing a factor analysis.
Rorschach inkblot test
10 cards of inkblot designs. Can be administered 2 years and older
Administration: involves 2 phase: free association phase where examiner presents the 10 cards in a determined order and asks the examinee to say what he or she is seeing and records the response verbatim; inquiry phase where examiner asks follow up questions taht assist with scoring
Categories for scoring: location, content, determinants, form quality, popularity/frequency
Interpretation: considers number and ratio of response falling into each category. For example, many whole interprations suggest organized thinking
Parts of it have more promising validity and reliability scores
Thematic apperception test
Based on Henry Murray’s theory of needs.
Various cards with pictures and person is supposed to tell story of what is happening in the picture.
Has little utility for assigning specific diagnosis but can be used for gross diagnostic distinction and to measure personality (cognitive style, emotional reactivity, defensive structures)
Halstead-Reitan
Neuropsychological test… used to detect brain damage and its severity and location in individuals 15 or older
Know scoring which ranges from 0 to 1… the higher the more severe
Bender-Gestalt-II
Neuropsychological test… measure of visual-motor integration for 3 and older
16 stimulus cards and person is asked to copy and then recall phase to draw all that they remember
Valid measure of brain damage and can be used to measure academic achievement, learning disabilities,
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Ability to form abstract concepts and to change cognitive strategies in response to feedback
There are 4 stimulus cards and 64 response cards. Asked to sort response cards under stimulus cards and is given feedback about sorting strategy. After 10 correct trials, examiner changes sorting strategy without warning.
Sensitive to frontal lobe damage and linked to alcoholism, autism, schizophrenia, depression and malingering
Stroop color word association test
Degree to which examinee can suppress a prepotent response… measures cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and response inhibition.
Sensitive to frontal lobe damage, ADHD, mania, depression, and schizophrenia.
Mini mental status exam
Screening test for cognitive impairment for older adults; measure 6 aspects of cognitive functioning: orientation, registration (immediate recall) attention and calculation, delayed recall, language, and visual construction. The max score is 30 and scores below 23 or 24 represents cognitive impairment
Glasgow coma scale
Assess level of consciousness following brain injury. The lower the score the more severe brain injury ranging from 3-15
Beck depression inventory II
To measure depression on scale of 0-63
20-28 moderate depression
29 or greater severe
14-19 mild depression
Larry P vs Riles
It was determined that african Americans were over represented in the SF public school system special education classes.
Concluded that IQ tests are culturally biased which lead to this so enjoyed SF school for using these to place black kids in special ed classes
Vineland-II
Used to evaluate personal and social skills of children and adults with intellectual disability, Autism, ADHD, brain injury, and dementia and to help develop IEP plans
Threats to internal validity (selection, history, maturation)
Internal validity is whether there is a causal relationship in study. Threats to internal validity include the following:
Selection is when method used to assign people to groups results in systematic differences
History is when an event happens at the same time as independent variable (aka pandemic) so to resolve need control group
Maturation is when something happens that lead subjects to change overtime in the course of the study (like fatigue or waiting too long to administer teh follow up) solution is having control group
External validity (pretest sensitivity, reactivity)
Reactivity is when ppl perform different bc they know they are being watched.
Pretest sensitivity is when subjects perform different on the post test because of effects from the pre test. Can overcome this by not administering a pretest or having two groups where both groups get the pretest.
Multiple baseline design
Does not require removing treatment like the reversal designs. Instead, you assign bases line for different settings, different behaviors in same subject, to same subject on different tasks, or to same behavior of different subjects.
Example. You apply the adhd txt first to school, then to working on homework, then to quiet room. Measure behavior at regular intervals in all settings.
Central limit theorem
Characteristics of the sampling distribution has Three predictions:
1) as the sample size increases, the sampling distribution of the mean approaches a normal distribution
2) the mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is equal to the population mean
3) the standard deviation of th sampling distribution of the mean is equal to the population standard deviation if divided by the square root of the sample size.
Standard error of the mean
Standard deviation of the population. Know this formula
Type 1 and Type 2 errors
Type 1 error is bad (false positive) when you reject the null hypothesis when it is actually real (say there is an effect when there isn’t one)
Type 2 error is false negative, when you say there isn’t effect when there actually is.
Know this!!!
Experiment wise error rate
The more experiments you run, the higher the chance you will make a type 1 error
Least squares criterion
Line of best fit in regression
Alternate forms reliability
Best form of measuring reliability. Create two test and administer to same group of ppl and the two sets of scores are correlated. Often now done because hard to create two comparable tests.
Split half reliability - spearman brown prophecy formula
Split half reliability produces underestimate so use that formula to correct it
Coefficient alpha - Kundera Richardson formula (KR-20)
Normally an underestimate so use that formula to correct it
Standard error of measurement
When you get a reliability coefficient that isn’t 1, then that means there is measurement error. So you have to produce a confidence interval to determine the range with which a score could fall.
You use a formula to calculate the SEM = SD times square root of 1-reliability coefficient. Then you get a number e.g., 4 to figure out the 95% confidence internal you multiple that by two and subtract on each end of the test score.
Stress innoculation
3 phase: 1) mostly educational where client learns about his responses to stress; 2) learn coping skills both relaxation and cognitive; 3) apply skills to stressful situations through exposure.
Rater biases
lienency/strictness bias: rater tends to avoid middle range. Rates all employees as high or low.
Central tendency bias: rater uses only the middle range
Halo bias: rate on one dimensions influences rates on other dimensions; can be positive or negative.
Work samples
Most commonly used to select applicants for jobs requiring clerical, mechanical, or technical skills.
Assessment centers
Used to evaluate managerial level personnel
Overlearning and identical elements
Used to increase effectiveness of training programs. The ability to perform a task with little to no conscious thought.
Identical elements: degree of similar between aspects of the learning and performance environment is maximized
Needs assessment
Organizational assessment where learn the goals of the organization; a task analysis to figure out what must be done to perform the job successfully; person analysis to figure out which individuals need extra training; demographic analysis to figure out which groups of people need more training.
KABC-II
Kaufman Assessment battery for children- 3-18
Supposed to be a more culture fair test because minimizes verbal instructions and responses
Scales: simultaneous, sequential, learning, planning, and knowledge
Kuder occupational interest survey
Provide information on examinee’s interests in 10 vocational interest areas. Uses criterion keying… meaning that there isn’t a general group they used to determine item correlations. Instead items correlated to groups of ppl representing different jobs.
