psychopathology L1-7

Question 1

L1 definition of deviation from social norms

Answer 1

Any behaviour not following accepted social patterns or rules.
Violation of these patterns or rules, can be regarded as abnormal, behaviour classed as unacceptable ( eg. No clothes in public )
These differ from one culture to the next, and between time periods

Question 2

What is the deviation of social norms model

Answer 2

Looks at the impact of individuals behaviour, upon others, behaviour examined in terms of how desirable behaviour is for individual and for society as a whole
Deviation from social norms, seen as abnormal and undesirable
Every society has rules governing behaviour, based on moral standards, rules can be very explicit and to break them, could break the law
Other rules seen as “code of conduct”, (dress codes)
deviation from social norms, used to identify person may be suffering from mental disorder, if person behaving in strange way, deviates from what expected of them, could become concerned enough, think may be suffering from mental disorder

Question 3

Disadvantage of Deviation from Social Norms

Answer 3

• definition does not always clearly indicate that a person has a psychological abnormality, therefore cautious when making judgements about whether deviation from social norms implies abnormality or just odd/eccentric may just have odd behaviour and deviate from social norms, not with mental disturbance, esp with behaviour alone

-context must be considered, not in model, as being nude in public is abnormal and deviates from social norms, but on a nude beach, its normal, therefore context needs to be considered with deviant behaviour, judge if abnormal or deviant or not

Question 4

Strengths of Deviation of Social Norms

Answer 4

-distinguishes difference between desirable and non desirable behaviour
-protects member of the public from effects of abnormal behaviour + damaging consequences can have
-eg. Abnormal behaviour is no clothes in street and would be damaging and disturbing
therefore by highlighting abnormal behaviour, minimises behaviour, protecting members of the public from it

may help inspire social change
- especially if social norms and constructs are restrictive and not meant to help others or help them thrive
- deviating from social norms, fuel equality, other basic rights, such as Rosa Parks refusing to sit in the racially segregated sections of the bus, and sat in the white designated seats, refused to get up, deviating from the social norms of segregation based on race, and therefore was a icon in helping promote rights and basic rights for african american individuals in the us
- hitler and his mass genocide of jewish people in world war 2

Question 5

L2 Failure to Function Adequately = definition

Answer 5

By Rosenhan and Seligman
- model of abnormality based on fact that person unable to cope w day to day life such as having a job, interacting well w others
-due to psychological stress / discomfort
- impact social, occupational, personal life

Question 6

Failure to Function as a model

Answer 6

-person seeks psychiatric help, could be classed as suffering, in some sense, psychological stress / discomfort
- recognise not functioning adequately, could be indicator of abnormality
- someone cannot fulfil social obligations ( keep a job etc..), indicating not functioning adequately

-psychologists use GAF, Global Assessment of Functioning Scale to assess rates of social, occupational, psychological functioning

-encompasses 7 criteria, help define mental abnormality, when several present together, person classed as abnormal
- more criteria = more abnormal
-less criteria = more normal

• allows psychologists to assess what degree someone is normal / abnormal

7 criteria
- suffering
- unpredictability and loss of control
-maladaptiveness
-observer discomfort
-vividness and unconventionality
-irrationality and incomprehensibility
-violation of moral and ideal standards

Question 7

Disadvantages of Failure to Function Adequately

Answer 7

-abnormality not always accompanied by dysfunction
-some have abnormality but still appear to lead normal life, with none of 7 criteria, such as Harold Shipman, committed many murders, appeared to live normal life
Also, alternatively, some may appear to be functioning inadequately, and are acc quite normal, but just having a bad day
-therefore may be an inaccurate definition of abnormality

7 criteria used in definition can be very problematic, very difficult to measure and analyse
- how can we really judge if someone suffering or not? How much suffering should they be experiencing?
-model is very subjective, lack scientific and objectivity, meaning psychologists need to be cautious using model defining abnormality
-might also be occasions when some criteria should be adhered to, would be normal pr right thing to do
eg. If close relative passes away, would be acceptable for people to show signs of suffering rather than not

Question 8

Advantages of Failure to Function Model

Answer 8

• using GAF (global assessment of functioning scale), psychologists can accurately assess degree of abnormality, how well patient is / is not, coping w everyday life
• patient appears not be coping very well in social / occupational life, then could be concluded that patient not functioning adequately, therefore abnormal
• does not just use one aspect of individuals life to determine and judge abnormality
• uses 7 different aspects of someone’s life, to determine degree of normality / abnormality
  -eg. example is observer discomfort, shows also how others affected by behaviour, such as Micele Lotito, behaviour may not just affect them, but make others around them also uncomfortable
  Multiple criteria, different from each other, whole picture taken, produce more conclusive decision to their mental state

Question 9

L3 = Statistical Infrequency = definition

Answer 9

Occurs when an individual possesses a less common characteristic than most of population, displaying statistically rare behaviour, eg. extremely high or low IQ score ( 130 or over or 70 or lower)

Question 10

L3 Statistical Infrequency = what is it

Answer 10

Any unusual behaviour, thought of as abnormal
- means looking at statistics, number of people displaying that behaviour, might be infrequent or rare
- eg, looking at IQ scores, over 130 and below 70 are quite rare/statistically infrequent, 100 is average IQ score

-65% population has IQ of 85-115
-95% population has average IQ score
-2.5% population has above average score (130 or over)
-2.5% population has below average score (70 or under)

-display data gained from IQ scores in Normal Distribution Curve
- left-skewed (negative skewness) and right-skewed (positive skewness)
-left skewed = median and mean lower than mode
-right skewed = median and mean higher than mode

Question 11

Advantages of Statistical Infrequency

Answer 11

• to have IQ score over 130, just as unsual or statistically infrequent as having IQ as under 70
• but, being very intelligent with IQ over 130, not negative behaviour, and is positive and desirable
  just because behaviour is statistically infrequent doesn’t mean person is abnorma, and requirs treatment, can be a good thing
• judgements based off on objective, scientific, unbiased, data, can help indicate abnormality and normality, (IQ scores)
• results from these can indicate whether someone needs psych help and assitance, under 70 IQ csore could indicate mental disability

Question 12

Disadvantages of Statistical Infrequency Model

Answer 12

• involves labelling some people as abnormal and may have non beneficial consequences
• eg. Low IQ of 70 may be labelled in negative manner, by others in society, could have negative effect upon them, how they view themselves, could affect self confidence and esteem, leading to further problems
• seems to be subjective cut off point, between abnormality and normality, we need to decide dividing line, between where abnormality and normality starts and ends
  eg. 70 IQ is abnormal, and statistically infrequent, but IQ of 71, is normal?
• cut off point can be questioned

Question 13

Deviation from ideal mental health : Marie Jahoda: definition

Answer 13

Stems from humanist approach focusing on motivation and self development
eg. Maslow and his hierarchy of needs = humans seek basic needs met first = then move up to next level

Abnormality related to lack of “contented existence”
People who deviate from ideal or optimal mental health classed as abnormal

Self actualisation = humans strive to meet full potential
- normal people strive to meet series of goals, to reach self actualisation
- abnormality could appear when an individual fails to meet that goal, or meet the necessary criteria

Jahoda argued that concepts of abnormality and normality is not very useful; too vague and general
- instead focus on 6 criteria needed to have positive mental health and be normal

Question 14

Deviation from ideal mental health : criteria

Answer 14

6 criteria
APPIES
must all be present at same time for individual to be classified as normal
- Autonomy = degree to which an individual is independent of social influence, can make own decisions = eg. Copying someone elses homework, not knowing what to order and copying someone elses
- Perception of Reality = prime factor where mentally healthy dont distort their perception of reality, show empathy, not too pessimistic or optimistic = may be v optimistic or pessimistic bout test, still be normal
- personal growth = extent of individuals growth, development or self actualisation, becoming person aim to be = examples eg. environment and situations may cause someone to loose hope, change path, but not abnormal
- integration = criteria of self attitude and personal growth together, person must be able to cope well with stressful situations and anxious situations = eg. some people are naturally anxious, have to learn against that
- environmental mastery = extent to which person is well adapted and successful = eg. Ability to love, good interpersonal relations and adequacy at work and play = eg. May not be brought up in life maximising their success, not be naturally able to multitask
- self attitude = high self esteem and strong sense of identity = eg. partner may have just lef them, have low self esteem, changes with experience

Question 15

Strengths of ideal mental health

Answer 15

• viewed as positive and productive, focusing on optimal mental health, that we should all strive for, and aim to achieve = therapeutic goal aim to achieve, self actualisation trait is something everyone should aim to achieve

-highlights and targets areas of dysfunction for individuals to work on, and improve in their life, important when treating different disorders, eg. Someone not possessing self attitudes, might not positive self image and be depressed, highlight areas for patient and psychologist

Question 16

Disadvantages of ideal mental health by Jahoda

Answer 16

• viewed as abnormal = 6 criteria based on abstract ideals and concepts, difficult to define and measure, eg. How much environmental mastery or self attitudes do we need, to be psychologically healthy, what point have we met criteria and at what point are we abnormal or normal ; not very objective or scientific
• problematic, very few people can actually achieve all 6 criteria at same time, many classed as abnormal, could argue would be normal to be abnormal, very difficult ideal to meet and is deemed as almost impossible

Question 17

L5 : Behavioural characteristics of phobias (actions)

Answer 17

• Avoidance = when faced w object creating fear, response is to avoid, interfering with their daily life, social and occupational activities, eg. Avoiding places where they would see their phobic object
• endurance (freeze / faint ) = person is stressed, response is usually fight or flight, but when faced with the object, an individual may freeze or faint instead, so predator thinks they are dead’ leaves them alone , endure but stay still (eg. Snakes)
• disruption of functioning = anxiety and avoidance may be so severe may interfere with ability to functionally or at work

-panic = may panic in presence of phobic object eg. Crying, screaming, vomiting, freezing etc..

Question 18

L5 emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 18

• fear= persistent, excessive and unreasonable fear felt in stimulus presence, can be long lasting, might be immediate response, feelings of terror, worry about death if come into contact w the object
• panic and anxiety= feel highly anxious, experience unpleasant negative feelings when faced with phobic situation, worry a great deal

Question 19

L5 : cognitive characteristics of phobias (thinking)

Answer 19

• irrational = person thinks in irrational manner about their phobia, they will resist rational arguments countering it, eg. Someone scared of flying not listen to fact that flying is safest form of transport

-insight = person knows their fear is excessive or unreasonable, still find it difficult not to feat it eg. Know its silly to fear balloons, but cannot help it

-cognitive distortions = has distorted perception of stimulus, may view snakes as alien and aggressive (sees in negative way)

-selective attention = person encounters phobic stimulus, cannot look away and focus all of their attention on it, will ignore everything else around them, just focus on phobic situation

Question 20

Examples of phobias

Answer 20

Arachnophobia ( fear of spiders )
Hydrophobia (fear of water)
Xanthophobia (fear of colour yellow)
Pogonophobia (fear of beards)

Question 21

L6: behavioural approach to explaining phobias = Two process model

Answer 21

1. Phobia learnt via classical conditioning or social learning
2. Phobia maintained by operant conditioning
3. Classical Conditioning
   - learns by building up association between 2 different stimuli so learning takes place
   eg. little albert = white rat (neutral stimulus no initial reaction) presented to person (on its own)
   loud banging noise, (unconditioned stimulus), presented making someone cry having emotional response (on its own)
   Then repeatedly pair 2 stimulus together, many times, present both stimuli together, until learning and classical conditioning takes place, person has emotional response when hear loud noise and see rat
   Present rat alone (conditioned stimulus), person has emotional response, (conditioned response), learning takes place via classical conditioning, association established

Little albert : study of classical conditioning by watson and rayner (1920)
- 11 months old
- struck steel bar with hammer whenever he would reach
- paired 6 times, 3 one week, 3 the next

Question 22

Positives of classical conditioning

Answer 22

• king (1998) supports idea proposed by classical conditioning, from reviewing case studies, found children acquire phobias by encountering traumatic experiences w phobic object
  -being bitten by dog, develops phobia of dogs

Question 23

Disadvantages of classical conditioning

Answer 23

• study on little albert only conducted once, not very reliable, not been repeated, could be questioned whether same results gained if study repeated when investigating phobias can be learnt, via classical conditioning
• study could not be conducted again due to ethical concerns
• some people do have traumatic experience such as car accident, however, many people do not go on to develop phobias (cars/driving), so classical conditioning do not explain all phobias develop
• opposite true for some phobias, some scared of an object, but not even encountered object (snakes)
• psychologist Menzies, criticises behavioural model, especially classical conditioning model
• he studied people that had hydrophobia, found only 2% had encountered negative experience with water (due to classical conditioning), 98% sample had hydrophobia, but not learnt via classical conditioning, how did get hydrophobia without classical conditioning

-other findings, 50% people had dog phobia have never had bad experience with dog, learning cannot be factor in causing development of phobia

Question 24

Social Learning Theory / Modelling

Answer 24

-based on observational learning ( young children might observe reaction that parents or family have to particular situation, child copy this behaviour)
eg. watching someone have traumatic experience eg. Bitten by dog and screaming, might imitate behaviour and also be scared of dogs, developing phobia by observational learning

-minneka found when one monkey in cage showed response to snakes, other monkeys in cage copied this response, also showing fear response to snakes too, eg. Applies to humans too

Question 25

Operant conditioning

Answer 25

Helps maintain the phobia
- method involves learning new response (phobia), result in reinforcement
- operant conditioning helps explain how phobias are maintained

• negative reinforcement = eg. Someone scared of snakes, will try avoid snakes to reduce risk feel fear
• positive reinforcement = avoiding snakes not feeling fear, gives rewarding feeling, therefore snake avoidance continues

Question 26

Evaluation of 2 process model

Answer 26

+
- bandura supports idea of social learning theory, piece of research conducted whereby person acted as if in pain, buzzer sounded, participants watched reaction. Later, pps given chance hear sound of buzzer and showed same response, therefore, SLT does seem to be effective method when learning to become fearful of object

-praised as it involves 2 clear steps highlighting how phobias learned and maintained, process seems accurate way explaining how phobias learnt overall, by classical conditioning or slt and maintained by operant conditioning

• SLT successful in explaining learning a phobia can occur in animals + young children, but SLT not v strong explaining adults can learn to have phobias, therefore two process model limited only explains young children + animals
• ignores other factors causing phobias, behavioural model focuses on learning and environment, not take biological or evolutionary factors, causing phobias, some may have more genetic vulnerability to develop phobias, behavioural model ignores this

Question 27

L7 : Systematic Desensitisation

Answer 27

SD is behavioural therapy developed by Wolpe (1958), reduces/diminishes phobias, using classical conditioning
Person w phobia experiences fear and anxiety as behavioural response, to an object or situation
Uses classical conditioning, replacing irrational fears and anxieties associated with phobic objects with calm and relaxed emotions instead

-reciprocal inhibition = central idea of SD is that it is impossible to feel 2 opposite emotions at the same time, fear and relaxation
- counter conditioning = if patient can learn to remain relaxed (eg. Remain relaxed) in presence of phobia and can be cured

Question 28

Process involved in SD

Answer 28

1. Hierarchy of Fear
   Constructed by therapist and patient, situations involving phobic object, ranked from least to most fearful
   Eg. Phobia of snakes therapist might get at first look at pic of snake, then snake in tank, then asked hold snake
2. Relaxation Techniques
   Taught deep muscle relaxation techniques, eg. Deep breathing, progressive muscular relaxation (PMR), relaxation response
   Idea behind PMR, tense up group of muscles, so tightly contracted as possible, hold in extreme tension state, then relax muscles to previous state, consciously hold in state of extreme tension few secs, then relax to org state
   Asked to sit quietly and comfortably and close their eyes when doing relaxation response, start from feet then work way up, relaxing muscles, when doing this, asked to breathe deeply, meditate and imagine relaxing situations
3. Gradual exposure
   - introduced to their phobic object gradually, work their way up fear hierarchy, starting w least frightening stage, must use relaxation technique whilst exposed to phobic object at each stage
   - when feel comfortable, with one particular stage of hierarchy, move onto next stage, patients are instructed to use relaxation techniques while exposed to scenarios of more and more fear

Eventually, repeated exposure, to phobic exposure, with relaxation, no fear, phobia eliminated, process take many therapy sessions

Question 29

+ of SD

Answer 29

• Jones (1924) supports SD use, eradicates Little Peters phobia, white rabbit presented to Little Peter, gradually closer distances, each time anxiety lessoned, developed affection for white rabbit eventually, extended to all white fluffy objects, shows how SD can work to eliminate phobias
• Klosko et al (1990), supports SD use, assessing various therapies, for treatment of panic disorders,
• 87% patients panic free after SD
  50% receiving medication
  36% receiving placebo
  33% receiving no treatment at all
  SD effective therapy comparatively
• SD is less traumatic than phobias, than other behavioural therapies, like flooding, where patient confronts phobias directly, SD has ethical implications, than other behavioural therapies, less upsetting for patient to endure

Question 30

• of SD

Answer 30

• not always practical individuals desensitised by confronting real life phobic situations, difficult to arrange and control, eg. Someone scared of sharks
  Might be difficult apply to real life situations, question effectiveness of therapy

-symptoms are addressed by therapy, but critics believe symptoms merely are tip of iceberg, claiming underlying causes of phobia remains, in future, symptoms remain, symptom substitution reoccur, other abnormal behaviours replace ones removed

Question 31

Flooding : behavioural therapy

Answer 31

-directly exposes phobic patient to feared object in immediate situation
- patient taught relaxation techniques, Deep muscle relaxation, deep breathing, meditation
- but, no gradual build up using fear hierarchy, instead involves immediate exposure to frightening and extreme situation, eg. Scared of snakes asked to hold snake for long time period
-can be done in vivo (in person), or virtually (by imagination)
-stops phobic responses very quickly, patient doesn’t have option for avoidance
- not allowed to run away or not face phobic object
- quickly learn object is harmless, therefore extinction occurs

• patient achieves relaxation, in presence phobic object, so exhausted by own fear response, their phobic response diminishes
• flooding ethical, though cause great deal initial psych harm, have to give fully informed consent, fully prepared for flooding session
• given choice of either SD or flooding
  -sessions usually 2-3 hours, much longer than SD

Question 32

+ of flooding

Answer 32

• Cost effective, when compared to cognitive behavioural therapy, takes months or years to work, rid phobia
  Seems to be quick therapy, useful, meaning patients free of symptoms asap, cheaper treatment
• Ost (1997) agrees flooding effective and rapid treatment delivering immediate improvements, for patients w phobias, especially case when patient encouraged to continue self directed exposure to fear objects outside of therapy
  Results can be applied to everyday life of therapy
• highly traumatic, less effective for curing some phobia types, like social phobia, as social phobias have more cognitive aspects, flooding cant address well, addressing negative thoughts about public speaking, more effectively treated by cognitive therapies