Psychopathology Flashcards
1
Q
define psychopathology
A
the scientific study of mental health conditions and disorders
2
Q
what does psychopathology examine?
A
the behaviours, symptoms, causes, development and treatments for mental disorders
3
Q
what is the DSM-V?
A
the standard classification of Mental Health disorders
4
Q
what does the DSM-V include?
A
it is a list of mental disorders which included information about clinical characteristics that should be present in order for a diagnosis to be given
5
Q
what are the 4 ways that psychologists can define abrnomality?
A
-deviation from social norms
-deviation from statistical norms
-failure to function adequately
-deviation from ideal mental health
6
Q
what does the explanation for abnormality: ‘deviation from social norms’ say?
A
this explanation suggests that any behaviour which goes against a social norm is considered to be abnormal
7
Q
define social norm
A
a behaviour that is considered socially acceptable
8
Q
what is an example of deviation from social norms?
A
standing very close to someone during a conversation
9
Q
what does the explanation for abnormality: ‘deviation from statistical norms’ say?
A
This explanation says the behaviour which is not common, is considered to be abnormal. The explanation defines abnormality in a mathematical manner.
10
Q
how many deviations away from the average is considered abnormal?
A
people that fall 2 or more standard deviations away from the average behaviour are considered abnormal
11
Q
what is an example of deviation from statistical norms?
A
people with an IQ of under 70 or above 130 are abnormal
12
Q
what does the explanation for abnormality: ‘failure to function adequately’ say?
A
this explanation says that people are considered to be abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
13
Q
what is an example of failure to function adequately?
A
being unable to shower
14
Q
what does the explanation for abnormality: ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ say?
A
This explanation suggests that there are certain things needed for good mental health. Therefore, if individuals do not meet the criteria for good mental health, they are considered to be abnormal.
15
Q
what are the categories for a good mental health?
A
-self attitudes
-personal growth
-integration
-autonomy
-having an accurate perception of reality
-mastery of the environment
16
Q
what does it mean by self attitudes in terms of a good mental health?
A
having a high self esteem
17
Q
what does it mean by personal growth in terms of a good mental health?
A
the extent to which an individual develops their full capabilities
18
Q
what does it mean by integration in terms of a good mental health?
A
being able to cope with stressful situations
19
Q
what does it mean by autonomy in terms of a good mental health?
A
being independent
20
Q
what does it mean by mastery of the environment in terms of a good mental health?
A
ability to love, function at work, form interpersonal relationships etc.
21
Q
what are the strengths of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from social norms?
A
this definition distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour
22
Q
what are the limitations of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from social norms?
A
-social norms change over time
-deviance against social norms relates to the context of the behaviour
23
Q
what are the strengths of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from statistical norms?
A
sometimes we need to use statistical criterion to define abnormality
24
Q
what are the limitations of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from statistical norms?
A
-it does not take into account that some abnormal behaviour is desirable
-it’s very subjective when deciding the cutoff point for normal and abnormal
25
what are the strengths of the explanation of abnormality as failure to function adequately?
it recognises the subjective experience of the patient
26
what are the limitations of the explanation of abnormality as failure to function adequately?
-it's very subjective
-it's different for different cultures
27
what are the strengths of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from ideal mental health?
the definition offers an alternative perspective on mental disorders by focusing on the positives
28
what are the limitations of the explanation of abnormality as deviation from ideal mental health?
-according to this criteria, most people are abnormal
-it suggests that mental health is the same as physical health
29
what is a phobia?
a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a stimulus- this interferes with normal living
30
what are the different types of phobias?
-specific phobias
-social phobias
-agoraphobia
31
describe what a specific phobia is
sufferers are anxious in the presence of a particular stimulus e.g. animal types
32
describe what a social phobia is
sufferers experience inappropriate anxiety in social situations- even thinking about a social situation can cause anxiety which can lead to avoidance
33
describe what agoraphobia is
sufferers become anxious when they are in a situation that they cannot easily leave- this leads them to avoid such situations and become extremely anxious if anticipating them
34
what are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
-anxiety
-anticipation anxiety
-excessive fear
-panic
-persistent fear
-unreasonable fear
35
what does it mean by emotional characteristics of phobias?
how you feel when you see a feared object
36
what does it mean by behavioural characteristics of phobias?
how you behave when you see a feared object
37
what does it mean by cognitive characteristics of phobias?
what you think when you see a feared object
38
what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
-fight or freeze response
-fainting when presented with stimulus
-freezing when presented with stimulus
-interference with everyday life
-fight, flight or freeze response
-avoidance of stimulus
39
what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
-irrational thoughts
-recognition of irrational thoughts
-resistance to rational thinking
40
what are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
-focuses on observable events
-focuses on how behaviours are learned
-basic principle of learning behaviour
-classical conditioning is learning through association of stimuli
-operant conditioning is learning through consequences of behaviours
41
what is the two-process model as an explanation for phobias?
it proposes that phobias are acquired through classical conditions and phobias are maintained through operant conditioning
42
how does classical conditioning work?
a phobia is acquired through association- the association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus creates a conditioned response
43
describe the process of how Little Albert acquired a phobia through classical conditioning
BEFORE CONDITIONING: white rat (NS) --> baby (no response)
BEFORE CONDITIONING: loud noise (UCS) --> baby has fear response (UCR)
DURING CONDITIONING: white rat (NS) + loud noise (UCS) --> baby has fear response (UCR)
AFTER CONDITIOING: white rat (CS) --> baby has fear response (CR)
44
what is operant conditioning?
the learning of behaviours through reinforcement or punishmet
45
what is the two process model made up of?
-the acquisition of a phobia
-the maintenance of that phobia
46
how does someone acquire a phobia?
classical conditioning
47
how is a phobia acquired through classical conditioning?
-we learn our phobia through a process of association
-we associate a previously neutral stimulus with a newly conditioned response
48
how does someone maintain a phobia?
through operant conditioning
49
how is a phobia maintained through operant conditioning?
we maintain the presence of our phobia by being rewarded with the removal of unpleasant feelings every time we avoid the stimulus which increases the likelihood of the behaviour repeating- negative reinforcement
50
what are the strengths of using the two process model to explain phobias?
-effective treatments for phobias
-supported by research into classical conditioning
51
what are the limitations of using the two process model to explain phobias?
-incomplete explanation
-cannot be completely explained by behaviourist approach, but can be explained with biological preparedness
-ignores cognitive factors
52
when acquiring a phobia through classical conditioning what is always the neutral stimulus?
the thing you have a phobia of e.g. dogs
53
what are the ways of treating phobias?
-systematic desensitisation
-flooding
54
what is systematic desensitisation?
this therapy aims to extinguish an undesirable behaviour (fear) by replacing it with a more desirable behaviour (relaxation)
55
define flooding
this therapy exposes the individual to their phobic stimulus in the most frightening situation
56
describe the stages of systematic desensitisation
1. client learns relaxation techniques
2. client works out a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frightening
3. the client works through the hierarchy learning to use relaxation techniques in the presence of the feared object
57
in what ways can systematic desensitisation be carried out?
-in vivo
-in vitro
58
what does in vivo mean?
in real life
59
what does in vitro mean?
virtual/imagined
60
what does flooding involve?
-involves exposing the individual to their phobic stimulus in the most feared situation immediately, rather than using a hierarchy and gradual exposure
-the individual is immersed in the experience in one long session, the therapy continues until the individuals anxiety has disappeared
61
what is an example of flooding?
someone with a fear of snakes would be placed into a situation where they are surrounded by snakes
62
why does flooding work?
-your fear response and the release of adrenaline that accompanies your fear response is time limited
-this means that adrenaline levels will naturally being to decrease
-this means that a new stimulus-response can be learned so the individual will now be able to associate the phobic stimulus with a non-anxious response
63
what are the strengths of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias?
-research has found that it is effective, 75% of patients with phobias respond to SD (in vivo techniques found to be most effective but often SD involves a combination of in vivo and in vitro
-much quicker treatment than other methods (such as CBT) and requires more motivation and effort, this therefore makes it a much better treatment option for children or individuals with learning disabilities
64
what are the limitations of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias?
-SD might not be effective in treating all phobias as it focuses on replacing the learnt anxiety response with relaxation, it might not be effective in treating phobias with an evolutionary component where the individual has not 'learned' the fear association
65
what are the strengths of flooding as a treatment for phobias?
-if it works, it can be a very quick and effective treatment, research has found that although SD and flooding are effective, flooding is more effective
-however, other research suggests that they are of similar effectiveness in treating phobias
66
what are the limitations of flooding as a treatment for phobias?
-traumatic experience for both the patient and the therapist, the experience is highly traumatic (patients might therefore quit the treatment half way through, impacting upon it's effectiveness)
67
what are the limitations of behavioural therapies in general?
-a key issue with both systematic desensitisation and flooding is that they only treat the symptoms of the disorder, rather than the underlying phobia
- these treatments do not identify the underlying cause of the phobias so it is possible that the phobia may disappear temporarily, and could occur at a later date
-for example, someone with a dog phobias may receive SD for this phobia and it might appear to be treated, but could be later replaced with a fear going out of the house
68
what is depression?
a mood disorder where an individual experiences low mood, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt and other characteristics
69
when does depression usually occur?
between the ages of 20 and 40 years old
70
what are the different types of depression?
-major depressive disorder
-persistent depressive disorder
-disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
-premenstrual dysphoric disorder
71
what is major depressive disorder?
severe but often short term depression
72
what is persistent depressive disorder?
long term or recurring depression
73
what is disruptive mood dysregulation disorder?
childhood temper tantrums
74
what is premenstrual dysphoric disorder?
disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation
75
how is depression diagnosed?
according to the DSM, patients should display at least 5 of the following, every day for at least two weeks:
-depressed mood
-lack of interest/pleasure in activities
-significant weight changes
-insomnia
-loss of energy
-feelings of worthlessness
-lowered ability to think/concentrate
-recurrent thoughts about death
76
what are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
-change in activity levels
-disruption to eating and sleeping
-aggression and self harm
77
describe how activity levels change when someone has depression
-can have reduced energy levels, making them lethargic (this can be so severe that they struggle to get out of bed in the morning)
-also psychomotor agitation, individuals may struggle to relax and may pace up and down
78
describe how eating and sleeping patterns change when someone has depression
-insomnia or episodes of increased sleep (hypersomnia)
-appetite is likely to increase or decrease leading to weight gain or weight loss
79
describe how someone might experience aggression when they have depression
-irritable and verbally or physically aggressive
-can lead to aggression against self (self harm or suicide)
80
what are the emotional characteristics of depression?
-low mood
-anger
-low self esteem
81
describe how mood changes when someone has depression
-low mood is the defining emotional element of depression
-patients often describe themselves as feeling 'empty'
82
describe how a person who has depression may experience anger
this anger can be directed at themselves or at others
83
describe how a person who has depression might experience a low self esteem
-those with depression tend to report having reduced self esteem (this can be extreme- some individuals report having feelings of self loathing)
84
what are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
-poor concentration
-dwelling on the negatives
-absolutist thinking
85
describe how a person with depression may struggle with concentration
-may find it difficult to stick to a task
-can also struggle to make decisions
-this poor concentration will likely interfere with the individuals work and everyday life
86
describe how a person with depression might dwell on the negatives
-when suffering a depressive episode, people are more likely to pay attention to the negative aspects of a situation
-those with depression may also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy events
87
describe how someone with depression may experience absolutist thinking
-in reality most situations are not either all good or all bad
-however, those with depression tend to think in these terms they will perceive an unfortunate situation as an absolute disaster
88
what are the two examples of the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
-Ellis' ABC model
-Beck's negative triad
89
what is the source of irrational beliefs in Ellis' ABC model?
musturbatory thinking
90
what is musturbatory thinking?
thinking that certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy
91
what are the three most important irrational beliefs that Ellis identified?
-I must be approved of or accepted by people I find important
-I must do well or very well or I am worthless
-The world must give me happiness or I will die
92
what did Beck believed to be the cause of depression?
depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world and they lack a perceived sense of control
93
why did Beck suggest that people with depression developed negative thoughts?
due to a negative schema that is acquired during childhood
94
what is a negative schema?
a tendency to adopt a negative view of the world
95
what might a negative schema be caused by?
-parental or peer rejection
-criticisms by teachers
-loss of a loved one
96
when are negative schemas activated?
whenever a person encounters a new situation that resembles the original conditions in which these schemas were learned
97
what do schemas lead to?
-cognitive biases
-this leads to over generalisations, and sweeping conclusions about their self worth from a single piece of negative feedback
98
what do negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain?
what Beck calls the negative triad
99
what makes up Beck's negative triad?
1. Negative view of self
2. Negative view of the future
3. Negative view of the world
100
what's an example of a negative view of the self as a part of Beck's negative triad?
"I am just plain undesirable, what is there to like? I'm unattractive and seem to bore everyone."
101
what's an example of a negative view of the future as a part of Beck's negative triad?
"I am always going to be on my own, there is nothing that is going to change this."
102
what's an example of a negative view of the world as a part of Beck's negative triad?
"I can understand why people don't like me. They would all prefer for someone else's company. Even my boyfriend left me."
103
describe the parts of Ellis' ABC model
Activating event
irrational Beliefs
Consequences
104
describe rational beliefs
-reasonable
-self enhancing
-logical
-accurate
-realistic
105
describe irrational beliefs
-catastrophic
-self defeating
-illogical
-inaccurate
-unrealistic
106
what's an example of an activating event as part of Ellis' ABC model?
Sam failed his maths test
107
what's an example of an irrational beliefs as part of Ellis' ABC model?
"I am stupid, I will never pass my GCSE"
108
what's an example of consequences as part of Ellis' ABC model?
depression, lack of self confidence, gives up revising
109
what triggers the emotional response in Ellis' ABC model?
it is the irrational beliefs that trigger the emotional response, not the event
110
what happens when someone has musturbatory assumptions?
these assumptions are bound to fail eventually, which will lead to at best: disappointment or possibly: depression (they create a basis for irrational beliefs to form)
111
what are the strengths of the cognitive approach as an explanation for depression?
-has support for the role of irrational thinking
-has practical applications in CBT
112
what are the limitations of the cognitive approach as an explanation for depression?
-blames the client rather than situational factors
-there is an alternative explanation: biological
113
how is the cognitive approach used the treat depression?
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
114
what does CBT involve?
-combines cognitive therapy and behavioural therapy
-talking therapy that focuses on goals and the present
-helps to break cycle of negative thoughts
115
what's the rationale behind CBT?
the idea that how we think affects our behaviour
116
what is the name of the cognitive behavioural therapy that Ellis created based on the ABC model?
Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT)
117
what does CBT/REBT involve that treats depression?
Disputing
Effects of disputing
new Feeling
118
what are the different types of disputing?
-logical
-empirical
-pragmatic
119
what is logical disputing?
explaining that self defeating beliefs do not follow logically from the information available
120
what is an example of logical disputing?
does thinking this way make sense?
121
what is empirical disputing?
explaining that self defeating beliefs may not be consistent with reality
122
what is an example of empirical disputing?
where is the proof that this belief is accurate?
123
what is pragmatic disputing?
emphasising the lack of usefulness of self defeating beliefs
124
what is an example of pragmatic disputing?
how is this belief likely to help me?
125
why are clients given homework between sessions in CBT?
to test irrational beliefs against reality and replace them with new rational ones
126
what is the purpose of getting clients to be active and doing activities as a part of CBT?
this is based on the idea that being active can increase dopamine levels and act as an antidote for depression
127
what is unconditional positive regard and why is it necessary in CBT?
-one of the most important things within therapy is to convince clients that they have value as a human being
-the therapist provides respect and appreciation regardless of what the client says or does
128
what are the strengths of the cognitive approach to treating depression?
-has research support
129
what are the limitations of the cognitive approach to treating depression?
-does not take into account individual differences
-there are better alternative treatments
-could be explained by 'Dodo-bird effect'
130
what is OCD?
-an anxiety disorder
-the anxiety arises from obsessions and compulsions
-the compulsions are a response to the obsessions, and the individual believes that performing the compulsions will reduce the anxiety they are feeling
131
what are obsessions?
recurring and persistent thoughts which are not based on reality
132
what's an example of an obsession?
an individual may believe that germs and bacteria exist everywhere
133
what's an example of compulsions?
repetitive behaviours/ physical urges to perform urges
134
what are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
-anxiety and distress
-embarrassment and shame
-disgust
135
how might a person with OCD experience anxiety and distress?
intrusive thoughts cause feelings of anxiety in the individual
136
how might a person with OCD experience embarrassment and shame?
the individual may become aware that their behaviour is excessive which can lead to them feeling embarrassed or hiding their behaviours
137
how might a person with OCD experience disgust?
individuals may feel disgusted at everyday situations e.g. germs
138
what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
-intrusive thoughts
-ideas/doubts
-being unaware of obsessions and compulsions
139
how might a person with OCD experience intrusive thoughts?
these thoughts are inappropriate or forbidden- this can be frightening for the individual
140
how might a person with OCD experience ideas/doubts?
this can be things such as germs are everywhere, worrying something important has been missed and impulses
141
what are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
repetitive behaviours
142
how might a person with OCD experience repetitive behaviours?
-the behaviours are performed in order to reduce the anxiety created by obsessions
-individuals feel they need to perform these actions otherwise something will happen
143
what's an example of a repetitive behaviour?
handwashing or counting
