Psychopathology Flashcards
- In society there are social norms - standards are acceptable behaviour that are set by social groups e.g. not walking down the street naked. Sometimes these are unwritten but they are generally accepted
- Abnormal behaviour is anything that goes against (deviates from) the unwritten rules and norms e.g. talking to yourself
- e.g. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) - a person with APD is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible. People with APD are abnormal because they do not conform to our moral standards
AO3 of Deviation of Social Norms
definitions of abnormatily
+ A strength of the DSN definition of abnormality is that is has face validity, it supports the general views that most people have of what abnormality is. For example, someone with schizophrenia would deviate from social norms as they may be talking to themselves or showing obvious irrational decision making and behaviour.
This means it is easy for people of the general population to identify abnormality within people they know or people around them and advise them to get help. Additionallu, having obvious deviations from the norms also makes it easier for clinicians to identify illnesses and treat them accordingly. Therefore this is a strength of the explanation as using this, is bound to lead to valid diagnosis
+ A weakness of this definition of abnormality is that social norms change over time and therefore what is defined by society as normal is not constant and changes as social attitudes change. For example, homosexuality was once considered abnormal behaviour because it broke the social norms of the day and was even classed as an abnormality in the DSM. This is an issue as it means that behaviours considered abnormal now may not be considered that way in the future. It is not ideal to have a definition of abnormality that does not stay consistent from time to time. Therefore we have to be careful when using DSN as a way of defining abnormality as it may lead to invalid diagnosis
face validity, social norms change overtime
Statistical Deviation
definitions of abnormatily
- Abnormal behaviour is rare (uncommon)
- People who use this definition measure specific characteristics and assess how they are distributed in the general population
- One way in doing this is by the means of a normal distribution curve: for a given reason most people score around the middle (mean)
- Any individuals who are far away from the mean are perceived as abnormal (top and bottom 2.5%)
- If someone demonstrates behaviour at either extremes, they are considered as abnormal
- e.g. schizophrenia is suffered by 1 in 100 people and so it is statistically infrequent
AO3 of Statistical Deviation
definitions of abnormatily
- A limitation of the statistical infrequency definition is that there are many abnormal behaviours that are infrequent but actually quite desirable. For example, a very low IQ is, statistically just as abnormal as a very high IQ, but it is desirable to have a high IQ. This is an issue according to this definition, as it views rare behaviours regardless of the fact that some may be desirable as well as abnormal. For example, having an IQ of 160 may be classed as a negative abnormality ignoring the idea that it may be desirable to have that high IQ. Furthermore, while illnesses like depression are common, it may end up viewing those as normal due to their frequency despite the problems that depression brings. Therefore this invalidates the definition as in order to identify behaviours which need treatment there needs to be a means of identifying infrequent AND undesirable behaviour
- A strength of the statistical infrequency definition is the way it collets data about a behaviour and how it provides a ‘cut off point’, it becomes an objective way of deciding who is abnormal. For example, it can be used to define and diagnose somebody as suffering from intellectual disability disorder (IDD). People who have an IQ in the range from 85-115 are viewed as normal, only 2% have a score below 70. Those individuals scoring below 70 are rare and are therefore labelled as having IDD. This is a strengthbecause it makes it possible to measure and identify mental abnormalities objectively, perhaps avoiding the need for subjective interpretation of diagnostic criteria. This helps in the proper identification of abnormalities.
infrequent but quite desirable, provides a cut off point
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
definitions of abnormatily
- Abnormality occurs when we fail to meet the required criteria for psychological wellbeing. Jahoda suggested that NORMAL mental health includes 6 characteristics
1. Positive attitude towards self - valuing yourself as a person and seeing yourself as important
2. Accurate perception of reality - viewing the world in an objective manner based on evidence. Distinguishing between reality and fantasy
3. Being resistant to stress - being able to cope with the demands of life
4. Self-actualisation and personal growth - constantly striving to be the best that you can to reach your full potential
5. Environmental mastery - to be able to cope/handle/adapt to changes in your environment
6. Personal autonomy - not being reliant or dependent on other people, getting through life based on your own motivation and drive - The more characteristics an individual fails to meet and the further they are away from psychological normality, the more abnormal they are
- e.g. someone suffering from schizophrenia may have psychosis (detachment of reality) and therefore deviate from the criteria that a person should have an accurate perception of reality
PABSEP
AO3 for Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
definitions of abnormatily
- A strength of the DIMH definition is that it offers an alternative view on mental disorders by focusing on the positives rather than the negatives and focuses on what is desirable rather than what is undesirable.
Additionally the DIMH definition covers a broad range of criteria for mental health. The 6 criteria cover most of the reasons why someone would seek help from mental health services or be referred for help. This is a strength of the definition as the sheer range of factors discussed in relation to Jahoda’s ideal mental health make it a good tool for thinking about mental health.
Therefore this adds validity to this definition as a tool for diagnosing abnormality - A limitation of the DIMH is that the criteria that it has set for mental normality is unrealistically high. For example, due to the stresses of everyday life, very few people would match all the criteria laid down by Jahoda and probably nobody achieves all of them at the same time or keep them up for very long, and because of the stressors of everyday life this means that this is an issue, as this definition would see a large majority of people as abnormal and in need of help. Therefore, the DIMH definition could contribute to misdiagnosis if followed
alternative view+broad range, criteria been set is unrealistically high
Failure to function adequetly
definitions of abnormatily
- Behaviour is considered abnormal when an individual cannot cope with everyday life, when it interferes with their life.
- Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) proposed seven characteristics of personal dysfunction. The more of these features an individual exhibits the more likely they are to be classed as abnormal
- This causes distress leading to an inability to function properly, like disrupting their ability to work and/or conduct satisfying relationships e.g. severe depression, which can lead to a lack of interest, meaning that the depressed person may fail to get up in the morning and hold down a job
AO3 of Failure to Function Adequetly
definitions of abnormatily
- A strength of the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality is that is has real life application, it includes important criteria that applies to the diagnosis of many disorders. For example, many people experience severe depression and/or anxiety some of the time. However, a key difference between those diagnosed with depression or anxiety as a mental disorder and the rest of the population is that those who are diagnosed find their depression and/or anxiety is seriously interfering with their everyday lives e.g. holding down a job and relationships. This suggests FFA allows us to distinguish between different severities of disorders and allows us to treat them accordingly. Therefore, this definition is useful in diagnosis and improving people’s lives increasing its validity as a tool for defining abnormality
- A limitation of the FFA definition of abnormality is that many individuals with mental health issues can appear to lead perfectly normal lives most of the time and abnormality is not always associated with failing to function adequately. For example, Harold Shipman was a doctor who was responsible for the death of over 200 of his patients over a 23 year period. In spite of his appalling crimes, Shipman functioned adequately and was seen to be a respectable doctor. This is a problem because he was clearly abnormal, but he did not display the features of dysfunction and was able to escape detection for many, many years. Therefore FFA may be an inadequate definition of abnormality on its own
What’s a phobia
A phobia is an extreme or irrational fear of objects or when it comes to social phobias to certain situations. Two commonly known phobias are arachnophobia & claustraphobia
AO1 of behavioural explanations of phobias
Behavioural characteristics -
* Failure to function: Difficulty taking part in activities required to have normal life
* Avoidance: Steering clear of situations that may expose you to the phobic stimulus
* Panic: occurs in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus and involves a range of behaviours (crying, screaming, running away)
Emotional Characteristics -
* Anxiety: Persistent state of arousal which makes it difficult to relax, anxiety hightens when encountering the phobia
* Fear: Intense emotional state linked to a fight or flight response sensation in the presence of the phobia
AO1 of the two process model
- Phobias are learnt through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.
- The classical conditioning element involves learning to associate something, which we initially have no fear of (neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus)
- The neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus resulting in a conditioned response of fear/anxiety.
- Before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UC) = Unconditioned response (UR) - During conditioning
Neutral stimulus (NS) + Unconditioned stimulus (US) = Unconditioned response (UR) - After conditioning
Condition stimulus (CS) = Conditioned response (CR) - The operant conditioning element suggests that the person actively avoids or escapes the phobic stimulus resulting in negative reinforcement (rewarding/pleasurable), reinforcement tends to increase frequency of behaviour, in the case of negative reinforcement the individual avoids a situation that’s threatening for them in order to end the unpleasant experience, maintaining the phobia
- Conditioned responses acquired by classical conditioning tend to decline over time, however phobias are often long lasting. This is because of operant conditioning
AO3 of the two process model
- A strength of the two process model it is supported by research. For example, research by Watson and Rayner created a phobia in a 9 month old baby called ‘Little Albert’. Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study. He was then presented a white rat alongside made a loud, frightening noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear. Eventually Albert became frightened when he saw a rat even in the absence of the noise. This shows that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning. The rat then became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produced a conditioned response (CR) of fear. Therefore, adds validity to the two-process model as a explanation of phobias
- A limitation of the behaviourist explanation is that there could be an alternative explanation for avoidance behaviour. For example, the model does not account for other credible and research-backed factors that also lead to phobias such as faulty cognitions. The cognitive approach proposes that the phobias may develop as a result of irrational thinking (e.g. a person in a lift might think that ‘I might get trapped in here). This is a problem because thoughts like these then contribute to feelings of anxiety that lead a person to show emotional symptoms of phobias. Since the two-process model does not account for such cognitions that have been proven by research, it can be seen as a very simplistic cause and effect based model that does not consider any intermediate factors. Therefore reducing the validity of the model in explaining phobias
- A weakness of the two-process model is that it can be considered an incomplete explanation. Bounton points out that evolutionary factors have an important role in phobias too. For example, we easily acquire phobias of things that have been a source of danger in our evolutionary past, such as fears of snakes as it is adaptive to have these phobias. Despite modern objects like guns and cars being of danger to us, it is much rarer to develop a phobia of these. Seligman called this biological preparedness - the innate predisposition to acquire fears of objects that were a danger to us in our evolutionary past. This shows that our evolutionary past can be a mediating factor (in addition to experiences) in developing phobias. Therefore the model could be seen as invalid as it doesn’t consider all factors that could affect the acquisition of a phobia
supported by research, could be alt. explanaition for avoidance behavior
Systematic desensitization
Behavioural treatments of phobias
Three stages involved :
1- Anxiety hierarchy: the therapist and patient together construct a desensitisation hierarchy, which is a series of events/ stimuli that cause anxiety, with the level of anxiety increasing with every stage
2- Relaxation: a patient is taught how to relax their muscles completely as stress and relaxation cannot co-exist or be experienced at the same time
3- Exposure: the patient gradually works through each anxiety-evoking event while engaging in relaxation techniques.
Once the patient has mastered one stage in the hierarchy, they are ready to move on to the next. The patient will eventually master the feared situation
It works because it’s impossible to experience two opposite emotions of fear and relaxation at the same time, theory is aka reciprocal inhibition.
SD uses classical conditioning to replace irrational fears and anxieties associated to phobic objects with relaxation
AO3 of systematic desensitization
A strength of systematic desensitization is that it has been found to be an effective treatment for specific phobias. For example, research by Gilroy et al. followed up 42 people who had been treated for their spider phobia using three 45-minute systematic desensitisation sessions. A control group was treated by relaxation without exposure. At both three months, and 33 months after the treatment, the systematic desensitisation group were significantly less fearful than the control group. This is a strength of systematic desensitisation as it shows not only does this treatment work but the effects are also long lasting. Therefore, this demonstrates the treatment to be effective
A limitation of both flooding and systematic desensitisation is that they may not be addressing the real cause of the phobia. For example, the treatments have been criticised by the psychodynamic model for being too focused on symptoms instead of the causes of abnormal behaviour. Psychoanalysts claim that the symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg - the outward expression of deeper underlying emotional problems (possibly triggered by traumatic childhood experiences). This is a problem because Psychoanalysts believe that whenever symptoms are treated without any attempt to work out the deeper underlying problems, then the issue will only show itself in another way, through different symptoms. This is known as symptom substitution. Therefore using behavioural therapies such as these to treat phobias may be ineffective in the long run
found to be effectice for specific phobias, dont address real cause
Flooding
Behavioural treatments of phobias
- Involves exposing phobic patients to their phobic stimulus without a gradual build up in an anxiety hierarchy
- Instead it involves immediate exposure to a very frightening situation for extended periods of time
- Flooding sessions are typically longer than systematic desensitisation sessions, one session often lasting two to three hours
It works because flooding stops phobic responses quickly
* This may be because the patient does not have the option to avoid the phobic stimulus and so, soon learns that it is harmless
* In terms of classical conditioning, this process is called extinction
* The result is that the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response
