psychopathology Flashcards
statistical infrequency AO1
when an individual has a less common characteristic than most of the population, behaviour is less frequent in society.
deviation from social norm AO1
any behaviour which differs from that which society expects as abnormal.
failure to function adequately AO1
abnormality judged as inability to deal with the demands of everyday living failure to maintain basic nutrition, hygiene, relationships, employment.
deviation from ideal mental health AO1
defines abnormality as the absence of signs of good mental health.
definitions of abnormality AO1
statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
deviation from ideal mental health.
what were Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) proposed signs for failure to function adequately AO1
not conforming to interpersonal rules (eye contact, personal space)
experience of severe personal distress
behaviour is irrational or dangerous to themselves/others.
Jahoda (1958) criteria for the ideal mental health AO1
- accurate perception of reality
- positive attitude to him/herself (good self esteem and of lack guilt)
- self actualisation - reach potential
- resistance to stress
- environmental mastery
- be independent of other people (autonomy)
statistical infrequency AO3 limitation
many abnormal behaviours are desirable
very few people have an IQ over 150 yet having such an IQ is not desirable, there are some common behaviours that are seen to be undesirable.
experiencing depression is relatively common but the disorder is considered abnormal and undesirable.
we are unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours.
statistical infrequency AO3 strength
it is an appropriate measure in certain circumstances.
IQ is measured in terms of normal distribution for those who are two or more standard deviation below the mean.
this means this definition has real life applications as it is used as a real measure for certain behaviours.
this increases the validity of the definition in using it as a measure to define abnormality.
deviation from social norms AO3 limitation
social norms chance across time periods and therefore it is not consistent across time.
homosexuality is today socially acceptable in most western cultures but in the past, it was a classification in the DSM and even illegal.
whether somebody is defined as abnormal is then dependent upon the prevailing social morals and attitudes.
this can then produce inconsistent results across history meaning the measure lacks temporal validity.
deviation from social norms AO3 strength
can be useful for clinical practice
key defining characteristic of antisocial personality disorder is the failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical standards.
deviation from social norms is also helpful in diagnosing schizotypal personality disorder involving strange beliefs and behaviours.
this means that deviation from social norms is useful in psychiatric diagnosis.
failure to function adequately AO3 limitation
requires an objective judgement of a way of life
some may not be having a job as a failure to function adequately but others of an alternative lifestyle may disagree. those who enjoy extreme sports may also be seen to be behaving in a maladaptive way.
if we treat these as failures of adequate functioning, we may be limiting personal freedom and discriminating minority groups.
this poses a challenge for this definition of abnormality because it may depend on who is making the judgement rather than the behaviour itself.
failure to function adequately AO3 strength
it does take into account the patients subjective perspective
it allows us to view the mental disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it.
it is also relatively easy to judge objectively because we can list behaviours (eg. can dress self, prepare meals etc.) and check whether a person is functioning.
therefore if treatment and support is required it can be specific to the patients individual needs.
deviation from ideal mental health AO3 limitation
it sets high standards for mental health which may be unacheivable for most people
few people achieve full ‘self actualisation’. it is hard to even be sure what this is for each person. therefore this definition says a large number of people have aspects of abnormality.
furthermore the criteria are quite difficult to measure for example how east is it to assess whether someone has the capacity for personal growth.
therefore it could be argued that this definition is not usable when it comes to defining abnormality but may be better within the field of positive psychology at criteria to strive for.
deviation from ideal mental health AO3 strength
it is highly comprehensive
jahodas concept included a wide range of criteria and covers most of the reasons people seek mental health
this allows mental health to be discussed meaningfully with a range of professional with different theoretical views. eg. psychiatrist or CBT therapist
this means that ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess and discuss psychological issues.
cultural relativism, AO1
the idea that one can judge behaviour properly unless it is viewed in the cultural context from which it originated.
what can a lack of cultural relativism result in
the norms of the home culture being used to assess the behaviour of individuals from another culture - this is an example of ethnocentrism.
3 examples of cultural relativism
- in the 1930s single mothers could be committed to psychiatric units
- in australia in the early 1970s homosexuals were given electric shocks to cure them of their illness
- in chins people fear the wind as it is beloved by some to carry negative energy (yin)
limitation of the 4 definitions of abnormailty
it does not consider cultural relativism.
what are the 2 diagnostic manuals most commonly used in psychiatry
DSM and ICD
diagnostic statistical manual
international statistical classification of diseases.
what are the 3 categories of symptoms that you need to be aware of
emotional - feelings
behavioural - actions
cognitive - thoughts
definition of a phobia
persistent irrational fear that is disruptive to everyday life which is consistently either strenuously avoided or endured with marked distress
eg. arachnophobia
what are the 3 categories of phobias recognised by DSM - 5
Specific phobia - phobia of an object such as an animal or body part or a situation such as flying or having an injection
Social phobia – phobia of a social situation, such as public speaking or using a public toilet
agoraphobia – phobia of being outside or in a public place
what are the diagnostic criteria for phobias for DSM - 5
more than 6 months; intensity, distress
presence of the emotional, behavioural, and cognitive responses is almost always triggered in response to the phobic stimulus for a period of 6 months or more.
the emotional symptoms associated with phobias
anxiety – by definition phobias involve the emotional response of anxiety: high arousal
fear – immediate and unpleasant response when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus
unreasonable – disproportionate to any threat posed
the behavioural symptoms associated with phobias
panic – phobic people experience panic which can cause shortness of breath, shaking, and high heart rates.
avoidance – they show effort to avoid the phobic stimulus (which can affect their daily life, eg. Reducing amount of sleep)
.
endurance – occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus eg. A person with arachnophobia remaining in a room with a spider I keep an eye on it, rather than leaving.
cognitive symptoms associated with phobias
selective attention – person finds it hard to look away from the phobic stimulus
irrational beliefs – the phobic person does not respond to evidence eg. Finding out that flying is less dangerous than driving does not reduce the phobia.
cognitive distortions – thoughts about the phobic stimulus are distorted eg. Someone with arachnophobia sees them as bigger than they really are.
definition of depression
persistent sadness and lack of interest in pleasure
can disturb sleep and appetite tiredness and poor concentration are common
4 categories of depression recognised by DSM - 5
major depressive – severe, but often short-term depression.
persistent depressive – long term or recurring depression, including sustained major depression
disruptive mood dysregulation – childhood temper tantrums.
premenstrual dysphoric – disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation
specific phobia
phobia of an object such as an animal or body part or a situation such as flying or having an injection
social phobia
phobia of a social situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet
agoraphobia
phobia of being outside or in a public place
anxiety
by definition phobias involve the emotional response of anxiety : high arousal
fear
immediate and unpleasant response when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus
unreasonable (phobias)
disproportionate to any threat posed
panic (phobias)
phobic people experience panic which can cause shortness of breath shaking and high heart rates.
avoidance of phobias
they show effort to avoid the phobic stimulus which can affect their every day life
endurance in phobias
occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
selective attention (phobias)
person finds it hard to look away from the phobic stimulus
irrational beliefs in phobiasn
the phobic person does not respond to evidence
eg finding out that flying is less dangerous than driving doesn’t reduce the phobia
cognitive distortions (phobias)
thoughts about the phobic stimulus are distorted
eg someone sees them as bigger than what they are (arachnophobia)
major depressive
sever but often short term depression
persistent depressive
long term or recurring depression including sustained major depression
disruptive mood regulation (depression)
childhood temper tantrums
premenstrual dysphoric (depression)
disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation
what are the diagnostic criteria for depression for DSM - 5
5 symptoms every day, 2 weeks.
Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, anhedonia, and at least 5 of the listed symptoms persisting for at least 2 weeks.
emotional symptoms associated with depression
Low mood - this can include feeling ‘empty’ and ‘worthless’ or ‘hopeless’
Anhedonia – loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities that were once enjoyed; may be accompanied by abolition (loss of motivation to perform goal-directed activities)
Anger – directed towards others or self – this comes from the general feeling of being emotionally hurt.
Low self esteem – low perception of self; can lead to self-loathing.
low mood (depression)
this can include feeling empty and worthless or hopeless
anhedonia (depression)
loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities that were once enjoyed , may be accompanied by abolition (loss of motivation to perform goal directed activities)
anger (depression)
directed towards others or self this comes from the general feeling of being emotionally hurt
low self esteem (depression)
low perception of self can lead to self loathing
behavioural symptoms associated with depression
Low activity level – therefore sufferers show a sense of tiredness, desire to sleep and lower activity can be opposite psychomotor agitation.
disrupted sleep
disrupted eating – eat more or less
aggression/self harm – increased irritability; can become verbally or physically aggressive; can lead to ending a job or relationship; self harm can result in cutting or suicide attempts.
cognitive symptoms associated with depression
poor concentration – suffered cannot focus on a test as much as normal and find it difficult to make decisions
attention to the negative – these include negative self-beliefs such as guilt and a sense of worthlessness
abolutist thinking – see things as ‘black and white – can catastrophise situations, seeing something unfortunate as an absolute disaster.
memory bias – sufferers show cognitive bias of remembering unhappy events more easily.
definition of OCD
obsessive thought and compulsive behaviours
4 categories of OCD recognised by DSM - 5
OCD – obsessive, recurring thoughts, images, and or compulsions (repetitive behaviours, such as hand washing; most patients with OCD have both symptoms
Trichotillomania – compulsive hair-pulling
Hoarding – compulsive gathering of possessions and the inability to part with anything, regardless of value.
Excoriation – compulsive skin picking
diagnostic criteria for OCD afro DSM - 5
more than an hour a day ;distress
emotional symptoms associated with OCD
Anxiety and distress – obsessive thoughts are intrusive and frightening. The urge to compulsively repeat behaviour also produces anxiety.
Depression- OCD is often accompanied by depression; compulsive behaviour can bring relief, but is short term only
Guilt/disgust – OCD sufferers are often aware that their obsessive thoughts are irrstional and that their compulsive behaviours are abnormal. Alternatively, they can suffer guilt over minor moral issues. Disgust may be direct towards the self, or externally, like dirt.
behavioural symptoms associated with OCD
Repetitive Compulsive behaviours: Sufferers feel compelled to act on their obsessive thoughts with repetitive behaviours acts, called compulsions, such as handwashing. Other examples: praying, counting, tidying, ordering groups of objects. These behavoiurs are repetitive, unpleasant, and interfere with daily life.
- Compulsions reduce anxiety: compulsive behaviours often performed to reduce anxiety caused by obsessions, eg compulsive handwashing in response to obsessive fear of germs; compulsive checking (eg that a door is locked, or appliance switched off), in response to the obsessive thought that it might have been left unsecured
- Avoidance: Sufferers may attempt to avoid situations which trigger obsessions and compulsions, e.g. avoiding obsessive thoughts about germs by not emptying their bin
cognitive symptoms associated with OCD
Obsessive thoughts: obsessions are intrusive/recurring/unwanted thoughts. 90% of OCD sufferers experience obsessive thoughts. Examples: Thoughts about dirt in the environment leading to being contaminated. Worrying that the front door isn’t locked even though it’s been checked. These thoughts are repetitive, unpleasant, and interfere with daily life. Theyare present on most
days, for a period of 2 weeks or more
- Hypervigilance: selective attending and increased awareness of source of obsession in new situations
- Sufferer is aware these obsessive thoughts are irrational: OCD sufferers are aware that their cognitions are irrational. Despite this they maintain constant alertness and focus on potential hazards.
- Cognitive coping strategies: eg a religious person tormented by guilt may respond by praying or meditating, which helps manage anxiety, but can become a distraction
what is the behavioural approach
Behaviourism is a theory of learning which states all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning.
Behaviour is simply a response to environmental stimuli.
what is classical conditioning
learning through association
who researched classical conditioning
Pavlovs dogs
Watsons little albert
how did Pavlov research CC
UCS (food)
UCR (salivation)
NS (bell)
CS (bell after conditioning)
CR (salivation after conditioning from the bell)
operant conditioning
learning through consequences
research associated with operant conditioning
Skinners
skinners box
positive reinforcement -behaviour that is rewarded is repeated
negative reinforcement - behaviour that avoids an unpleasant stimulus is repeated
punishment - a behaviour that results in an unpleasant outcome will not be repeated.
what is Mowrers 2 process model
1960
- Phobias are acquired or initiated through classical conditioning
- Phobias are maintained or continued through operant conditioning.
Explains avoidance behaviour but not phobic cognitions.
how are phobias initiated
According to the behavioural approach a phobia is acquired through learning an association.
how are phobias maintained
operant conditioning which takes place when behaviour is reinforced.
