Psychopathology

Question 1

AO1 - definition of abnormality
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS

Answer 1

• standards of expected/ acceptable behaviour is set by social groups
• anything that deviates from the expected/acceptable behaviour is considered abnormal as it is unexpected by social groups or causes offence to society
• for example, someone with OCD may bring their own cutlery to a restaurant due to a fear on contamination. This would be seen as unexpected behaviour by society so is seen as abnormal.

Question 2

AO3- DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS
☹️ - cultural relativism

Answer 2

P- One weakness of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that social norms are created within cultures. Therefore it could be argued that deviation from social norms is limited due to cultural relativism. Different cultures have different social norms and standards of expected behaviour. For example, in Western cultures someone who is receiving messages from spirits would be showing symptoms of schizophrenia as it is unexpected behaviour, however, in Non-western cultures this would be seen as a spiritual gift. Therefore, deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality may not be useful for defining abnormality outside of a specific culture.

Question 3

AO3 - DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS
😁 real life application

Answer 3

P- A strength of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it has real life applications in the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder.
E- mental health practitioners look for what is deemed acceptable by society and use those social norms to diagnose abnormal behaviour.
E- for example, someone showing truant behaviour, lack remorse and regular illegal acts would be seen as deviating from social norms as it is unexpected behaviour. Therefore, practitioners can use this to judge whether someone is displaying abnormal behaviour and therefore use it to diagnose antisocial personality disorder
L- therefore deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is useful for differentiating between normal and abnormal behaviour.

Question 4

AO1 - FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY
Definition of abnormality

Answer 4

This involves not being able to meet the demands of everyday life.
It looks into abnormal behaviour that interferes with everyday life, eg unable to maintain basic standards of hygiene of nutrition.
Rosenhan and Seligman found the signs of someone failing to function adequately, including;
- maladaptive behaviour
- irrational behaviour
- behaviour that is danger to themselves
- extreme personal distress
For example, someone with depression may be unable to get up in the morning, unable to maintain relationships or change their eating habits. Therefore showing that they are failing to function adequately.

Question 5

AO1-DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH

Answer 5

Jahoda says there are six criteria that define mental healthiness.
Failure to meet one or more of the criteria would suggest abnormality, the more they fail the more abnormal they are deemed.
Being deemed abnormal includes:
- having negative self attitudes - low self esteem and lack sense of identitiy
- problems with self actualisation- not being able to work their capabilities to achieve their full potential
- inability to resist stress- unable to cope with stress
- lack autonomy- lack independence
- inaccurate perception of reality- not having an accurate perception of the world
- poor environmental mastery- unable to love or unable to solve problems

Question 6

AO1 - STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY

Answer 6

This looks at behaviour that is typical in the general population and any behaviour that is rare/ uncommon/ infrequent is abnormal.
Therefore, on a distribution curve, any behaviour that is 2SD (standard deviations) or more from the mean is statistically rare and therefore abnormal.
For example, OCD affects 2% of the population which is statistically rare and therefore abnormal.

Question 7

AO3 - FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY
😁 acknowledges the personal experience of the individual

Answer 7

P- A strength of failure to function adequately is that is acknowledges the personal experience of the individual. E- It could be argued that although the criteria is difficult to measure, it takes into account the persons subjective experience and perspective on whether they struggle to meet demands of everyday life of if they feel extreme personal distress.
L- therefore, failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is an appropriate definition as it considers the experience of the individual.

Question 8

AO3 FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY
☹️ easy to label non-standard behaviour as abnormal

Answer 8

P- A weakness of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that it is easy to label non standard behaviour as abnormal. Some may argue that , it’s easy to say that someone is failing to function adequately when they are just simply deviating from social norms. For example, those who take part in extremist activist may be seen as abnormal by this definition because the behaviour appears irrational and they could be in danger to themselves.
L- therefore, failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality may not be an appropriate definition as those who engage in non typical behaviour are at risk of being labelled as abnormal.

Question 9

AO3 - DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH
😁 broad range of criteria

Answer 9

P- a strength of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it had a broad range of criteria for mental health.
E- some may argue that it covers most of the reasons why someone may seek help from mental health services.
E- this is in contrast to deviation from social norms which only considers one criteria for abnormality
L- therefore, deviation from ideal mental health is an appropriate definition of abnormality as it considers a vast range of factors for ideal mental health.

Question 10

AO3 - DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH
🙁 criteria is too strict

Answer 10

P- A weakness of deviation from mental health as a definition of abnormality is that the criteria is too strict.
E- This is because people are not realistically able to meet all six of the criteria at any one time
E- for example, someone who has lost a job may feel extremely stressed from the situation which may lead to having negative attitudes as a result. This would be seen as abnormal by this definition, however this would be a rational response
L- therefore, deviation from ideal mental health may not be an appropriate definition for abnormality

Question 11

AO3 - STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY
😁😁 practical applications

Answer 11

P- A strength of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it has practical applications which can be used in clinical practice for the diagnosis and assessment of a persons symptoms.
E- For example, a diagnosis for intellectual disability disorder requires a low IQ of below 70 (bottom 2%).
L- therefore, statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is an important part of applied psychology as it’s used for clinical practice

Question 12

AO3 STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY
☹️☹️ doesn’t differentiate between desirable and non-desirable behaviour

Answer 12

P- A weakness of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it does not differentiate between desirable and non desirable behaviour.
E - for example, a high IQ is seen as desirable as we would not consider it to be abnormal. However, having a high IQ is seen statistically rare so therefore would be deemed abnormal by this difintion
L- therefore, limiting statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality because although someone displays rare or uncommon behaviour does not mean they should be treated as having an abnormality.

Question 13

Define phobias

Answer 13

Phobias are having extreme fear or distress for an object (spider), place (lifts) or situation(crowds). The fear of the phobic stimulus is irrational and out of proportion from any real danger.

Question 14

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 14

• avoidance of the feared object. They will make a conscious effort to avoid contact with the phobic stimulus.
• panic- screaming, crying, running away from the phobia stimulus or even freezing or fainting.

Question 15

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 15

• anxiety- seeing or thinking about the feared object / phobic stimulus causes worry.
• fear- seeing or thinking about the phobic stimulus causes terror.

Question 16

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 16

• persistent irrational beliefs of the phobic stimulus- eg the spider will bite me
• selective attention- they will keep their attention on the phobic stimulus and finding it difficult to look away incase of any danger

Question 17

AO1 - Behavioural Approach for explaining Phobias

Answer 17

The behavioural approach suggests that phobias are learned behaviour. Mowrer argues that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning involves learning to associate something we initially have no fear of (neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a feared response (unconditioned stimulus). The feared response is triggered whenever the person sees or thinks about the feared object.
For example, little Albert initially had no fear of rats (neutral stimulus). Every time he saw the rat the researchers made a loud bang noises near his ear which triggered a feared response (unconditioned stimulus). Little Albert learned to associate the rat with the loud bang so whenever he saw the rat he responded with fear.
The feared response acquired by classical conditioning usually declines over time, however Mowrer emphasises that phobias are maintain through operant conditioning as when a person constantly tried to avoid the phonic stimulus they are being negatively reinforced as they are removing the feeling of anxiety. This explains how phobias are long lasting.

Question 18

AO3 - BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO EXPLAINING PHOBIAS
😁 practical application

Answer 18

P- A strength of the behavioural approach as an explanation of phobias is that it has practical applications
E- the principle of the theory that phobias are learned through stimulus, association and response (classical conditioning) can be used so patients can unlearn phobias theoigh classical conditioning.
E- this has led to the treatment ‘systematic desensitisation” which involves the patient learning relaxation techniques and being gradually exposed to their phobic stimulus.
L- therefore, the behavioural approach as an explanation of phobias is an important part of applied psychology as it can be used to treat phobias in real world.

Question 19

AO3 behavioural approach to explaining phobias
🙁🙁 environmental reductionism

Answer 19

P- A weakness of the behavioural approach as an explanation of phobias is environmental reductionism.
E- this is because the theory reduces the complex human behaviour of phobias down to simple basic units of learning phobias through stimulus, association and response and maintaining phobias through reinforcement.
E- this neglects the holistic approach which takes into account a persons social and cultural context and how it can influence phobias. For example, phobia Tiajin Kyofusno is the phobia of displeasing others which is relative to Japan which is a collectivist culture, however this is less common in Western cultures as displeasing others is not feared.
L- therefore, limiting the behavioural approach as an explanation of phobias as we cannot understand the behaviour in context

Question 20

AO1 - Systematic Desensitisation as a treatment for phobias

Answer 20

Aim- to use classical conditioning to unlearn a maladaptive response to a phobic stimulus

1. Relaxation- patient is taught relaxation techniques, eg, breathing exercises and muscle relaxation
2. Hierarchy of anxiety- the patient works with therapist to make a graded scale starting with the least fears situation and most feared situation, for example, someone with a phobia of walls may start with a photo of a wasp and end with being in a room of a wasp
3. Gradual exposure - the patient is gradually exposed to the least feared situation and is encouraged to use breathing techniques when they feel anxious. This is called reciprocal inhibition where two incompatible states of mind can’t coexist with eachother, eg relaxation and anxiety. The patient will only move onto the next stage when they are fully relaxed
4. Complete treatment - the patient completes treatment when they are fully desensitised and they can move through the hierarchy without anxiety

Question 21

Edit AO3 - Systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
😁 RTS Gilroy

Answer 21

P- research to support systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias was conducted by Gilroy.
E- She followed up a group of people that used SD for a phobia of spiders, using gradual exposure. They found that after both 3 and 33 months they were much less fearful of the phobic stimulus than a control group who used therapy as a treatment but without gradual exposure.

Question 22

AO3- Systematic desensitisation

Question 23

AO3 systematic desensitisation

Question 24

AO1 - Flooding as a treatment for phobias

Answer 24

The patient is immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus and cannot leave its presence. They experience high levels of anxiety and is unable to avoid the phobic stimulus. They remain in its presence until the anxiety response is exhausted and starts to decrease. This lasts 2-3 hours until the anxiety disappears. This is known as extinction and the patient will no longer fear the phobic stimulus.

Question 25

AO3 - Flooding as a treatment for phobias
😁 cost effective

Answer 25

P- A strength of flooding as a treatment for phobias is that is highly cost effective as it is quick and not expensive.
E- this is because the treatment only requires one session which lasts up to 2-3 hours where the patient is immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus.
E- this is in contrast to systematic desensitisation where the patient must attend up to 10 sessions and has the same results as they are gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus.
L- therefore, systematic desensitisation is an appropriate treatment for phobias can be cost effective for the NHS as it does not require the use of many resources and does not cost a lot of money to carry out.

Question 26

AO3 flooding as a treatment for phobias
🙁🙁 unethical

Answer 26

P- A weakness of flooding as a treatment for phobias is that it is unethical
E - this is because the treatment can be very traumatic for the patient as they are immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus which causes high levels of anxiety
E - this contrast to SD which is far more ethical as the patient is gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus and they create their own hierarchy of anxiety
E- Schumacher found that pateints and therapists rated flooding as far more stressful than SD.
L- therefore, reducing the appropriateness of flooding as a treatment for phobias.

Question 27

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 27

1. Change in activity levels - lack of energy and no longer partake in activities they once enjoyed (anhedonia) OR increased activity and agitation
2. Disruption of sleep- reduced sleep (insomnia) or increased sleep (hypersomnia)
3. Disruption of eating habits - increased appetite (gain weight) or loss of appetite ( lose weight)

Question 28

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 28

1. Poor concentration- unable to stick to a task they usually would or unable to make straightforward decisions which can affect work
2. Negative schema - interpret information negatively and ignore all the positives
3. Black and white thinking - view an unfortunate event as a disaster

Question 29

What are the emotional characteristics for depression

Answer 29

1. Low mood - feel numb, sad, empty
2. Angry- towards themselves and others

Question 30

AO1 - cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 30

The cognitive approach suggest that depression is caused by the way a person thinks about a situation, information or environment. If a persons thoughts and perceptions are irrational and mainly negative they are more vulnerable to depression.

Becks negative triad- beck suggested that constantly negatively thinking can make someone more vulnerable to depression. This is due to faulty information processing where the person ignored all the positive aspects of a situation and focuses on all the negative aspects. This is known as black and white thinking. Beck came up with the negative triad to explain this. There are 3 kinds of negative thinking that make someone more vulnerable to depression.
1. Negative views about the world - “the world is too hard”
2. Negative views about oneself- “I am worthless”
3. Negative views about the furture- “I will never achieve anything”.

Ellis ABC model- Ellis emphasised how irrational thoughts can interfere with us being happy and free of pain. He suggested that there are Activating events (A)- these are external events such as losing a job that can trigger irrational Beliefs (B). He identified a range of irrational beliefs that are triggered, eg the belief that we should always achieve perfection (musterbation) and the belief that life should be fair (Utopianism). The irrational thoughts that are triggered by the activating events lead to emotional and behavioural Consequences (C) such as depression.

Question 31

AO3 cognitive approach to explaining depression
😁😁RTS Cohen et al

Answer 31

P- Research to support the cognitive approach as an explanation of depression was conducted by Cohen et al
E- they tracked the development of 473 adolescents measuring their cognitive vulnerability ( a negative way of thinking that can lead to depression).
E- they found that those who showed signs of cognitive ability were predicted depression in later life.
L- therefore, supporting the association between cognitive vulnerability, ie negative beliefs and depression . Therefore suggesting that Becks negative triad is an appropriate explanation of depression

Question 32

AO3 cognitive approach to explaining depression
😁😁 practical applications

Answer 32

P- A strength of the cognitive approach to explaining depression is that it has practical applications.
E- the principle of the theory that depression is caused by negative and irrational thoughts has led to the treatment of”cognitive behavioural therapy” . This is an effective treatment that involves the client identifying, challenging and changing their negative and irrational beliefs to positive and rational ones.
L- therefore, cognitive approach as an explanation of depression is an important part of applied psychology as it can be used to treat people in the real world.

Question 33

AO3 Cognitive approach to explaining depression
🙁🙁 cannot establish a cause and effect

Answer 33

P- a weakness of the cognitive approach as an explanation of depression is that it cannot establish a cause and effect
E- some may argue that although there has found to be a link between negative/irrational thoughts and depression it cannot be firmly concluded that negative thoughts cause depression or are a consequence of it.
L- therefore, limiting the cognitive approach as an explanation of depression as it’s not a full explanation