psychopathology

Question 1

what are the four definition of abnormalities?

Answer 1

statistical infrequency.

deviation from social norms.

failure to function adequately

deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

strengths of deviation from social norms

Answer 2

Developmental norms

Social dimension

Protects society

Distinguishes between normal and abnormal

Helps people

Question 3

limitations to using ‘Deviation of social norms’ as a definition of abnormality

Answer 3

Changes over time

Ethnocentric

Cultural differences

Individualism

Question 4

failure to function adequately 3 examples.

Answer 4

Personal Distress
Displaying behaviour which causes person stress to the sufferer e.g. not being able to hold down a job and so having a limited income.

Maladaptive Behaviour
Displaying behaviour stopping individuals from attaining life goals both socially and occupationally.

Unpredictability
Displaying unexpected behaviours characterised by loss of control e.g. quitting a course after one bad mark in a test.

Question 5

strengths of inability to function adequately.

Answer 5

Observable behaviour
This definition focuses on behaviours which can be observed in the individual, allowing others to judge if the individual appears to have abnormal behaviours
Checklist
This definition provides individuals with a practical checklist to check their behaviour
Personal perspective
This definition allows the individual to have their own perspective of the mental disorder by recognising the personal experience of those suffering
Represents a threshold for help
This definition provides a clear criteria for when individuals need professional help

Question 6

limitations to using ‘Failure to function adequately’ as a definition of abnormality:

Answer 6

Discrimination
This definition labels individuals who make unusual life choices, E.g. those who complete unusual spiritual activities or base jumpers, as abnormal
This definition also discriminates against those cultures who make different life choices, E.g. Travellers, who may not live at a permanent address and choose not to work
Abnormality is normal
This definition does not consider when it is normal to behave abnormally, for example at the loss of a loved one, through a divorce, taking exams
Abnormality and dysfunction do not always go together
This definition does not explain people with dangerous personality disorders, such as psychopaths, who can appear normal, E.g. Harold Shipman a respected doctor who murdered over 200 patients but was seen as a respectable doctor

Question 7

6 characteristics an individual should display if they have an idea of mental health

Answer 7

Positive attitudes towards one’s self
Self actualisation
Autonomy
Integration
Accurate perception
Environment mastery

Question 8

strengths to using ‘Deviation of mental health’ as a definition of abnormality:

Answer 8

Holistic
This definition looks at the whole person and their behaviour, instead of focusing on singular behaviours, this means it is a holistic approach to diagnosing mental health issues
Comprehensive
This definition includes a range of reasons as to why individuals may need help with their mental health, it also includes a range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from illness
Positive approach
This definition focuses on positive behaviours and what is desirable instead of undesirable behaviours
Consistent
This definition provides a consistent and standardised measurement for those looking at both positive and negative mental health

Question 9

limitations to using ‘Deviation from ideal mental health’ as a definition of abnormality:

Answer 9

Cultural specific
This definition is specific for western cultures, in fact, collectivist cultures would see autonomy as undesirable
Over demanding criteria
This definition does not take into account that the criteria are often hard to achieve constantly or all of the time
For example, most people do not always have personal development or growth, which using this definition would make them abnormal
Changes over time
This definition does not account for changes over time, behaviours that were once seen as normal are abnormal and vice versa
E.g. Seeing visions of God would have been seen as a strong religious commitment, however, now, this would be more likely to lead to a diagnosis of a personality disorder
Subjective criteria
This definition tries to treat mental health in the same way as physical health, however, mental health is much more subjective and needs to be looked at in the context of the patient

Question 10

Criticisms of statistical infrequency
Strengths

Answer 10

It is an objective measure of measuring abnormality
There are no judgements made about the person with the abnormality: They just fall outside a statistical range
The graphs that plot the standard deviations are based on real data and, therefore, should be unbiased

Question 11

Limitations

Answer 11

Some conditions like depression are seen as psychopathologies yet are so common in our society that it feels wrong to state it is statistically infrequent
So not all abnormalities are statistically infrequent
Likewise, not all statistical infrequencies are abnormal: i.e. having a high IQ

Question 12

Behavioural characteristics of phobias.

Answer 12

Panic: A person with a phobia may panic in response to the phobia stimulus, this could result in displaying the following behaviours; crying, screaming and/or running away
Avoidance: A person with a phobia will avoid the phobic stimulus, which can make daily life complicated, E.g. if a person has a fear of going outside, they are unable to function in their day-to-day life
Endurance: The opposite behaviour to avoidance, where the individual chooses to remain in the presence of the phobia, but continues to suffer and experience high levels of anxiety

Question 13

Emotional characteristics of phobias.

Answer 13

Emotional responses: being unreasonable and irrational, the emotional response felt by the sufferer is disproportionate to the danger they are facing
Anxiety: A person with a phobia will suffer from anxiety, which is an unpleasant state of high arousal and this state stops the person from being able to relax or feel any other emotion
Fear: The person’s immediate emotion when coming into contact with the phobia is fear

Question 14

Cognitive characteristics of phobias.

Answer 14

Selective attention to the source of the phobia; often when the person is near the phobia, they cannot focus on anything else
Usually keeping your attention on something dangerous gives you a higher chance of survival, this is not so, when the fear is irrational, such as with a phobia
Cognitive distortions, the person’s perception of the phobia can often be distorted, E.g. Someone who has a phobia of spiders can see the spider as aggressive and angry looking and may even feel that the spider is running toward them as if to attack

Question 15

first step of the two process model of phobias.

Answer 15

The acquisition of the phobia by classical conditioning:
Phobic objects are at first a neutral stimulus (NS) and do not produce a phobic response
However, if it is then presented with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), that produces an unconditioned response (UCR) then, the NS will become associated with the UCS and then the fear (phobia), will occur whenever the NS is there
This means the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the UCR becomes the conditioned response (CR)
This conditioning is then generalised to similar objects

Question 16

second stage of the step step model.

Answer 16

Maintenance by operant conditioning:
If a person avoids the phobic object or situation then anxiety is greatly reduced, which is rewarding for the sufferer
Operant conditioning happens when behaviour is reinforced; by avoiding something unpleasant and being rewarded through not experiencing anxiety, we are reinforcing the avoidant behaviour
Mowrer suggests this is what happens when we avoid the phobic stimulus; we reduce the fear and this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained

Question 17

Example of acquisition of a phobia

Answer 17

Little Albert (1920)
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) wanted to study the development of phobias and conducted a laboratory experiment where they created a 9-month-old baby called ‘Little Albert’
At the start of the study, Albert showed no unusual anxiety or worries about different objects
Albert tried to play with a white rat when presented with it at the beginning
However, Watson and Rayner wanted to give Albert a phobia and so whenever the white rat was presented to Albert, they made a loud, scary noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear
The noise (UCS), created a fear response
When the rat (NS) and the UCS were put together, they became associated and both then created the fear response
Albert started to display fear when he saw the rat (NS)
The rat then became the CS that produces the CR and the phobia had started
Watson and Rayner showed that the conditioned stimulus could be generalised to similar objects; when they showed Albert other fluffy objects, such as Father Christmas’ beard made from cotton wool, a non-white rabbit, fur coat, Albert showed distress at all of these
His phobia had become generalised

Question 18

strengths of the two step model.

Answer 18

The two-process model has real-world application, it explains using two distinctive elements how phobias are both created and maintained.

Watson and Rayner’s ‘Little Albert’ study supports the two-process model as they showed how a frightening experience can be conditioned.

Question 19

limitations of the two step model.

Answer 19

The two-process model does not account for the cognitive processes associated with phobias, behavioural explanations focus on the cause of behaviours, however, cognitive components play a significant part in why someone has a phobia.

Not all phobias appear following a bad experience and the phobia of snakes is evidenced in many people who have no experience of them, which does not support the two-process model.

Question 20

three process involved in systematic desensitisation are:

Answer 20

Anxiety Hierarchy

The patient and therapist work together to construct an anxiety hierarchy, which is a list of situations that involve the phobic stimulus from least to most frightening
Relaxation

It is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time and so the therapist teaches the patient relaxation techniques
This could be in the form of breathing exercises or using imagining techniques, where the patient imagines themselves in a relaxing environment
It could also include medication if needed to help the patient relax, such as Valium
Exposure

Whilst in a relaxed state the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus starting at the bottom of the hierarchy
This is likely to take several sessions between the patient and the therapist
Once the patient is comfortable and relaxed in the lower levels of the hierarchy, then they move up the scale
The aim of the treatment is to allow the patient to be successful and move up to the top of the hierarchy, whilst remaining relaxed

Question 21

Limitations of systematic desensitisation

Answer 21

It is less effective for evolutionary therapies
Systematic desensitisation doesn’t treat the cause of the phobia, only the behaviour it causes
This may leave the patient vulnerable to other phobias developing as the real reason behind the fear has yet to be uncovered (Psychodynamic theory)
Virtual reality systematic desensitisation is less effective than using real stimulus
Does it work in real life or just in the hierarchy situations?
This is difficult to prove but it has been noted that some patients struggle to deal with the phobia outside of the therapy sessions
They cannot apply what they have learned to actual everyday situations

Question 22

Strengths of systematic desensitisation

Answer 22

Proven to be successful with a range of phobias and effective on different types of people
Gilroy et al. (2003) followed a group of 42 patients who had systematic desensitisation as a treatment for their spider phobia over three 45 minutes sessions and she found that at both 3 and 33 months they were less fearful and more in control of their phobia compared to the control group, who had not had any sessions
It is successful with patients who have a vivid imagination and can imagine their phobia
Systematic desensitisation is a fast treatment and requires less effort than most other psychotherapies
Technological advances mean dangerous situations can be lessened as the patients can also be treated with virtual reality: They can use VR headsets to go through their anxiety hierarchy
It is a successful treatment for those with learning disabilities, where other treatments may not be suitable
Systematic desensitisation doesn’t require a huge cognitive load and means the patients are less likely to become confused
Has huge practical uses: Certain airlines use systematic desensitisation courses to help fearful flyers overcome their phobia
Such courses start with a walk through the airport, listening to a pilot explain what happens during a commercial flight before taking a short flight themselves

Question 23

Limitations of systematic desensitisation

Answer 23

It is less effective for evolutionary therapies
Systematic desensitisation doesn’t treat the cause of the phobia, only the behaviour it causes
This may leave the patient vulnerable to other phobias developing as the real reason behind the fear has yet to be uncovered (Psychodynamic theory)
Virtual reality systematic desensitisation is less effective than using real stimulus
Does it work in real life or just in the hierarchy situations?
This is difficult to prove but it has been noted that some patients struggle to deal with the phobia outside of the therapy sessions
They cannot apply what they have learned to actual everyday situations

Question 24

Process of flooding

Answer 24

The patient receiving this treatment will be flooded with immediate exposure to their phobia
For example, a patient who has arachnophobia would have a large spider crawling over them, or be in a room with lots of spiders at once
Flooding stops the phobic responses quickly
This is likely because the patient cannot avoid the phobia in the flooding situation and, therefore, their irrational behaviour of avoidance is stopped and the patient realises the phobic stimulus is harmless
Therefore, the phobic response stops, and the learned response is extinguished: In classical conditioning, this process is called extinction
Counterconditioning happens and the patient learns to relax around the phobic stimulus instead of the anxiety they faced before

Question 25

strengths of flooding

Answer 25

Strengths of flooding
It is cost-effective, although individual flooding sessions are usually longer than systematic desensitisations sessions, often much fewer sessions are needed, with lots of cases only needing one session to be cured of their phobia
Flooding has higher rates of success than any other behavioural treatment
Works very well with ‘simple’ phobias e.g. phobias of one specific thing or object

Question 26

Limitations of flooding

Answer 26

It is very traumatic for the patient and an unpleasant experience for them
If the patient panics and the treatment is not completed, it may leave them with an even worse fear/phobia of the object/event
Schumacher et al. (2015) found both patients and therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressful than systematic desensitisation
Less effective with more complex phobias, such as social phobias
It is not suitable for individuals who are not in good health as the extreme levels of stress and anxiety caused during the session are very stressful on the body and could cause heart attacks

Question 27

The DSM-5 recognised the following categories of depressive disorders:

Answer 27

Major depressive disorder: Severe but often short-term depression
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: Childhood tantrums
Persistent depressive disorder: Long-term, reoccurring depression, including sustained major depression
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: Disruption of mood before and/or during menstruation

Question 28

Behavioural characteristics of depressive disorder

Answer 28

The shift in activity levels: This can be both an increase in activity such as restlessness or a decrease, where the person withdraws from the daily life, such as not being able to go to work
Affected sleep: This can be an increase in the need to sleep and stay in bed or a decrease where they suffer from insomnia or premature waking
Affected appetite: Again, this can be an increase, where the person eats more and more to comfort eat, or, a decrease, where the person cannot eat and struggles to eat meals
Aggression and self-harm: Depression can lead the individual to be aggressive with themselves and cause self-harm, such as cutting and suicide attempts

Question 29

emotional characteristics of depressive disorder

Answer 29

Sadness: The lowered mood is a key defining emotion of depression and can lead the person to feel hopeless
Anger: People with depression often have angry outbursts; this can be directed at themself or others
This emotion comes under behavioural characteristics as well as they can cause harm to themselves and others
Loss of interests: The person suffering from depression may lose all interest in activities or hobbies that once brought them joy, so giving them a lack of control
Lower self-esteem: A person with depression is likely to have lower self-esteem, with some suffering from self-loathing, E.g. Hating themselves or something in particular about themselves

Question 30

Cognitive characteristics

Answer 30

Negative views of the world: The person suffering from depression is likely to think that everything will turn out badly and there is no hope
Irrational thoughts: Their thoughts and beliefs are not rational and the person suffering from depression will see the world negatively, their thoughts do not accurately reflect reality
Poor concentration: The person suffering from depression can have poor levels of concentration, where they are unable to stick with a specific task or they find it hard to make decisions
Negative expectations of themselves: The person suffering holds unrealistic expectations about themselves and their relationships