psychopathology Flashcards
Statistical infrequency
a mathematical way of identifying and explaining abnormal behaviour - rare behaviour is assumed to be infrequent and abnormal
evaluation of statistical infrequency
✔️real world application
❌unusual characteristics (high IQ scores are rare, but it is not undesirable)
Deviation from social norms
defines abnormality as behaving differently from what is expected
evaluation of deviation from social norms
✔️real world application (helps diagnose disorders - antisocial personality disorder)
❌cultural and situation relativism (social norms vary between cultures)
failure to function adequately
Rosenhan & Seligman (1989)
1) when a person no longer conforms to the standard interpersonal rules
2) when a person experiences severe personal distress
3) when a persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others
evaluation of failure to function adequately
✔️prevents a threshold for help
❌discrimination
deviation from ideal mental health
Jahoda (1958) good mental health if … - no symptoms or distress - rational and can perceive ourselves - self-actualise - cope with stress - realistic view of the world - good self esteem and lack guilt - independent - successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure
evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
✔️useful tool for thinking about mental health
❌cultural relativism ( specified to western cultures)
obsessive compulsive disorder
a condition which is characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviours. obsessions are cognitive factors whereas compulsions are behavioural.
a neurological disorder.
behavioural characteristics of OCD
1) compulsions are repetitive
2) compulsions reduce anxiety
3) avoidance
cognitive characteristics of OCD
1) obsessive thoughts - around 90% of people with OCD have obsessive thoughts
2) cognitive coping strategies
3) insight to excess anxiety - people are aware their obsessions and compulsions are not rational
emotional characteristics of OCD
1) anxiety and distress
2) accompanying depression
3) guilt and disgust
genetic explanation
chromosomes and DNA determine behaviour
Diathesis-stress
interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental factors
Co-morbidity
Where two or more disorders are likely to be present together
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter implicated in OCD
Neurotransmitter
brain chemicals released from vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another
Polygenic
where two or more disorders are likely to be present together
Neuron
nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
Neural explanation
suggestion that the nervous system determines psychological characteristics including disorders
predisposition
making someone liable to something
candidate genes
genes which create vulnerability to OCD
- they regulate the development of serotonin in the system
aetiology
origins
heterogeneous
different
COMT gene
- regulates the neurotransmitter dopamine
- one variation results in higher levels of dopamine
- more common in OCD patients
SERT gene
- transportation issues cause lower levels of serotonin to be active in the brain - associated with OCD
- Ozaki et al (2003) published results from a study of two unrelated families who both had mutations of this gene. He found that 6 out of 7 family members had OCD
evaluation of genetic explanation
✔️evidence to support (Nestadt et al)
❌environmental risk factors
neural explanation
the genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters in the brain
decision making systems
- some cases are linked with impaired decision making
serotonin levels
low levels of serotonin means normal transmission of mood-relevant information doesn’t take place and a person may experience low moods
basal ganglia
a cluster of neurons at the base of the forebrain, which is involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement
orbitofrontal cortex
a region which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions
evaluation of neural explanations
✔️real life application (research shows that antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms)
✔️evidence to support ( some neural systems don’t work normally in people with OCD)
❌serotonin-OCD may not be unique to OCD
biological approach to treating OCD
drug therapies aim to restore the chemical imbalances in the brain - they aim to increase or decrease the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain or to increase or decrease their activity
Selective serotonin Reuptake inhibiters
SSRI’s
- They prevent the reabsorption and breakdown which increases the level of serotonin in the synapse , which means the post-synaptic neuron is always stimulated
Tricyclics
- stops serotonin from being absorbed
Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors
SNRI’s
- increases serotonin and noradrenaline
- different class of antidepressant (only used when people don’t respond to SSRI’s)
combining SSRI’s with other treatments
- drugs are often used alongside cognitive behavioural therapy to treat OCD
- the drugs reduce emotional symptoms which means that the person can effectively engage in CBT
- some people respond best to CBT on its own whilst some benefit from both
benzodiazepines
- focuses on GABA
- works because GABA tells the brain to slow down and to ‘stop firing’ + has a general quietening influence in the brain and reduces anxiety
- this is important as OCD includes obsessive thoughts
- GABA locks onto receptor sites , the flow of chloride ions are increased -> chloride ions make it more difficult for the receiving neuron to be stimulated by further neurotransmitters
- nervous system is slowed down, making the patient feel more relaxed
evaluation of biological approach to treating OCD
✔️benefits society (reduces symptom severity and improves the quality of life)
✔️cost effective and non-disruptive
❌drug treatment sometimes doesnt help people
definition of depression
a mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels
behavioural characteristics of depression
1) activity levels (reduced levels of energy, which causes a withdrawal from work, education and social life)
2) disruption to sleep and eating behaviour
3) aggression and self harm
cognitive characteristics of depression
1) poor concentration
2) attending to and dwelling on the negative
3) absolutist thinking
emotional characteristics of depression
1) lowered mood
2) anger
3) lowered self esteem
Beck’s negative triad
self
future world
negative self-schema
a package of information about themselves
faulty information processing
depressed people pay selective attention
evaluation of beck’s theory
✔️supporting research
✔️real life application (screening)
Ellis’s ABC model
1) Activating events
2) Beliefs (musturbation- always achieve perfection, ‘i-cant-stand-it-itis’ - everything is a disaster, utopianism - life is meant to be fair)
3) Consequences
evaluation of Ellis’ ABC model
✔️real world application (REBT)
❌only explains reactive depression
cognitive element in treatment
- assess the clients problems
therapist and client jointly identify the goals for the therapy and generate a plan - identify where there might be negative or irrational thoughts
behavioural element of treatment
- change the negative and irrational thoughts and put more effective behaviour in place
Beck’s cognitive theory
main assumption = to identify and challenge thoughts about the world, self and future
client as a scientist
clients test the reality of their negative thoughts
client homework
if a client has irrational thoughts, the therapist will have evidence to oppose the thoughts
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
REBT extends the ABC model to ABCDE
draw the ABCDE model
a -> b -> c -> d -> e
central technique to REBT
to challenge irrational thoughts using a vigorous arguement
what is the intended effect of REBT
to break the link between negative life events and depression
forms of a vigorous argument
empirical argument - disputing whether there is actual evidence to support negative beliefs
logical argument - disputing whether the negative thoughts logically follow from facts
goal of behavioural activation
- reduces avoidance and isolation
- increases engagement in activites
evaluation of CBT
✔️supporting evidence (March et al)
✔️real world application (first choice of treatment in public healthcare systems)
❌not suitable for severe cases of depression
phobia definition
an irrational fear of an object or situation
cognitive characteristics of phobias
1) selective attention to phobic stimuli
2) cognitive distortion
3) irrational beliefs
behavioural characteristics of phobias
1) panic
2) avoidance
3) endurance
emotional characteristics of phobias
1) anxiety
2) fear
3) emotional response is unreasonable
The two-process model
Hobart Mowrer (1960)
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
classical conditioning in phobias
- onset of the phobia
- Watson & Rayner (1920) -> Little Albert
operant conditioning in phobias
- maintains the phobia
- whenever a phobic stimulus is avoided, we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would experience if we remained there
evaluation of the behaviourist approach
✔️real world application (two process model helped develop exposure therapies)
✔️evidence to support (Little Albert -> loud noise & rats)
❌reductionist (two process model)
systematic desensitisation
- gradually reduces phobic anxiety through classical conditioning
- person must learn to relax in front of the phobic stimulus
- phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation instead of anxiety
SD: anxiety/fear heirarchy
client and therapist put a list of situations together, ranked from the least to most frightening
SD: relaxation
therapist teaches client relaxation techniques (breathing exercises, muscle relaxation, meditation)
SD: exposure
client is exposed to their phobia from the bottom of the hierarchy, to the top. Once relaxed, they can move up the hierarchy
evaluation of systematic desensitisation
✔️evidence to support (Gilroy et al)
✔️virtual reality
Flooding
exposing someone to their phobic stimulus without the gradual build up
evaluation of flooding
✔️cost effective (one session)
❌unpleasant (immediate fear)
