Psychopathology 1-7

Question 1

What is psychopathology?

Answer 1

The scientific study of mental disorders (abnormalities) such as depression, phobias and OCD

Question 2

Explain deviation from social norms.

Answer 2

Deviation from social norms is any behaviour that doesn’t follow accepted social patterns/rules in a given society or culture.

• Social norms may vary between cultures and generations.
• Looks at the impact of an individual’s behaviour on others.
• Helps identify a person that may be suffering from a mental disorder.

Question 3

Limitations of deviation from social norms (with examples).

Answer 3

1. It may be beneficial to break social norms
   (suffragettes broke many but this led to women gaining the right to vote)
2. Social norms of a society change over time
   (homosexuality was was a mental illness until 1990 but is no longer considered abnormal)
3. Deviation from social norms does not always have mental health consequences. Those who do not conform to social norms might just be merely eccentric.
   (naturists break social norms but are not perceived as having mental problems)

Question 4

Positives of deviation from social norms.

Answer 4

1. Distinguishes between desirable and non-desirable behaviour, so aims to protect the public from damaging consequences of abnormal behaviour.
2. People choose to be socially deviant as they choose a non-conformist lifestyle and are motivated by high principles.
   (deviants in Nazi Germany stood up against atrocities which was the right thing)

Question 5

Explain what is meant by failure to function adequately.

Answer 5

Abnormal behaviour which causes an inability to cope with everyday life.
A person’s behaviour may disrupt their ability to work or conduct satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Question 6

What are the seven features of personal dysfunction and who suggested this?

Answer 6

Rosenhan ans Seligman (1989)

1. Personal distress.
2. Maladaptive behaviour.
3. Unpredictability.
4. Irrationality.
5. Observer discomfort.
6. Violation of moral standards.
7. Unconventionality.

Question 7

Define Personal distress + maladaptive behaviour.

Answer 7

Personal distress- feeling sad, anxious, worried or scared.

Maladaptive behaviour- behaviour stopping individuals from attainting life goals. (Socially + occupationally)

Question 8

Define unpredictability and irrationality.

Answer 8

Unpredictability- displaying unexpected behaviours characterised by loss of control.

Irrationality- displaying behaviours which cannot be explained in a logical way.

Question 9

Define observer discomfort & violation of moral standards.

Answer 9

Observer discomfort- displaying behaviour which causes discomfort in others.

Violation of moral standards- displaying behaviour which violates society’s ethical standards.

Question 10

Define unconventionality.

Answer 10

Displaying behaviour which does not conform to what is generally done in a certain situation.

Question 11

Limitations of failure to function adequately.

Answer 11

1. Abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction. Psychopaths commit murders while still appearing normal (Harold Shipman).
2. There are times in a person’s life when it is normal to suffer from personal distress. (Eg. When a loved one dies)
3. BehavioUr may cause distress to others and be considered dysfunctional when the person themselves feels no personal distress. (Stephan Gough)

Question 12

Explain the case of Harold Shipman.

Answer 12

He was an English doctor who murdered 215 patients over 23 years.

He maintained the outward appearance of a respectable member of his profession, and had a family the entire time he was committing murders.

None of his family or friends were aware that he was a psychopath and serial killer

Question 13

Explain deviation from ideal mental health.

Answer 13

States that behaviour is abnormal if it fails to meet prescribed criteria for psychological normality.

Question 14

What are the 6 characteristics that individuals should exhibit to be classed as normal and who created them?

Answer 14

Marie Jahoda (1958)

1. Positive attitudes towards oneself.
2. Self-actualisation.
3. Autonomy.
4. Resistance to stress.
5. Accurate perception of reality.
6. Environmental mastery.

Question 15

Define positive attitudes towards oneself + self-actualisation.

Answer 15

Positive attitudes towards oneself- having high self respect, high self esteem and confidence.

Self-actualisation- experience personal growth and development. Reach one’s full potential and feel fulfilled.

Question 16

Define autonomy + resistance to stress.

Answer 16

Autonomy- being independent, self-reliant and able to make personal decisions for oneself.

Resistance to stress- having effective coping strategies and being able to manage everyday anxiety provoking situations.

Question 17

Define accurate perception of reality + environmental mastery.

Answer 17

Accurate perception of reality- perceiving the world in a non-distorted fashion and having an objective/realistic view of the world. (Not having hallucinations or delusions.)

Environmental mastery- Being competent in all aspects of life and the ability to meet the demands of any situation and the ability to adapt to changing life circumstances.

Question 18

Limitations of deviation from Ideal Mental Health.

Answer 18

1. This criteria is very demanding and unrealistic. At any given moment most people do not meet all the ideals.
2. Many of the criteria, such as personal growth, are vague and difficult ti measure so therefore are subjective. (How do we know when someone has reached their full potential?)
3. The criteria used are subject to cultural relativism(differences across cultures) and should not be used to judge different cultures.
   Collectivist cultures (eg. India and Japan) emphasise communal goals and regard autonomy as undesirable, unlike individualistic cultures (eg. USA and Germany).
   Therefore people from collectivist cultures may be seen as abnormal using the criteria.

Question 19

What is meant by statistical infrequency?

Answer 19

Abnormal behaviour is that which is statistically rare.

Question 20

Limitations of statistical infrequency with examples.

Answer 20

1. This definition fails to account for behaviour that is statistically rare but desirable.
   Eg. Someone with an above average IQ would not be seen as abnormal but instead very intelligent.
2. Some psychological disorders are not statistically rare.
   Eg. Depression affects 27% of elderly people which makes it common however it doesn’t mean that it isn’t a problem
3. Many rare behaviours/ characteristics have no bearing on normality or abnormality.
   Eg. Left handedness.

Question 21

Explain the behavioural characteristics of phobias.

Answer 21

1. Panic- the person might panic in the presence of the stimulus. They may show crying, screaming, fainting etc.
2. Avoidance- when faced with the object/situation that creates fear, the response is to evade it. This cam interfere with the person’s day to day life.
3. Endurance- the person may remain in the presence of the phobic object often frozen and unable to move.

Question 22

Explain the emotional characteristic of phobias.

Answer 22

Fear- persistent, excessive and unreasonable worry and distress may be felt in the presence of the stimulus.

Anxiety- the person will feel terror and be uncertain/ apprehensive about what will happen wen they encounter the phobic object.

Question 23

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias.

Answer 23

1. Irrational beliefs- the person’s thoughts about their phobia do not make logical sense, and they will resist rational arguments that counter it. They also have a distorted perception of the stimulus.
2. Selective attention- when the person encounters the phobic stimulus, they will become fixated on it because of their irrational beliefs about the danger posed.

Question 24

What does the behavioural approach say.

Answer 24

That all behaviour, including phobias, are learned.

Question 25

What is the two-process model?

Answer 25

1. The phobia is initiated through classical conditioning.

2. The phobia is maintained through operant conditioning.

Question 26

Explain classical conditioning.

Answer 26

Classical conditioning is learning through association. A stimulus produces the same response as another stimulus because they have been constantly presented at the same time.

This could be how phobias develop as the stimulus the person is afraid of has, in the past, been associated with another stimulus.
This conditioned response of fear can then be generalised to other objects/ situations.

Question 27

Explain operant conditioning.

Answer 27

Operant conditioning is learning through reinforcement and the consequences of one’s behaviour.

• positive reinforcement: behaviour leads to a reward.
• negative reinforcement: behaviour stops something unpleasant.
• punishment: behaviour leads to something unpleasant.

Avoidance of a phobic object reduces fear and so is reinforcing = an example pf negative reinforcement (escaping something unpleasant)

Question 28

Explain the “little Albert” experiment and who conducted it.

Answer 28

Watson and Raynor (1920) gave little Albert, a phobia of a white rat.
Albert was initially keen to play with the rat.
Every time he reached for the rat, a loud noise was made by striking a metal bar behind his head. This startled Albert and made him cry.
> eventually he cried every time he saw the rat and he also became afraid of other white fluffy objects.

Question 29

Explain whether each factor of the little Albert experiment was conditioned/ unconditioned or neutral. (Before&after)

Answer 29

Before:
Loud noise- unconditioned stimulus.
Fear- unconditioned response.
White rat- neutral stimulus.
After:
White rat- conditioned stimulus.
Fear- conditioned response.

Question 30

What are the negatives of the little Albert experiment?

Answer 30

• no informed consent ( mother was mostly unaware)
• no right to withdraw.
• no protection from psychological harm.

Question 31

What are the positives of the two-process model?

Answer 31

+ doesn’t label people with the stigma of being mentally ill. It is a positive model as it sees phobias as incorrect responses that can be corrected.

+ King (1998) reviewed studies and found children aquire phobias after traumatic experiences- supports idea that phobias are learnt through classical conditioning.

Question 32

What are the negatives of the two-process model?

Answer 32

• many people who have traumatic experiences don’t develop phobias. Not all people who have a phobia had a traumatic experience.
• A study found that 50% of people with a dog phobia, have never had a bad experience involving a dog. Therefore learning cannot be considered as a cause of phobias.
• model only takes learning and the environment into consideration, but not biological factors. Some people gave a genetic vulnerability to phobias.

Question 33

What is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 33

• a behavioural therapy developed by Wolpe (1958) to reduce phobias by using classical conditioning.

A person with a phobia experiences fear and anxiety as a behavioural response to an object or situation. SD replaces this fear and anxiety with relaxed responses instead.
The main idea of SD is that it’s possible two opposite emotions at the same time- called reciprocal inhibition.

Therefore if the patient can learn to remain calm in the presence of their phobia, they can be cured. This is called counter-conditioning.

Question 34

Explain the first stage of systematic desensitisation.

Answer 34

Anxiety hierarchy:
A hierarchy of fear is constructed by the therapist and the patient. Situations are created involving the phobic object and the patient is asked to rank them from least to most fearful.

Question 35

What is the second stage if systematic desensitisation.

Answer 35

Relaxation training:
The patients are taught deep muscle relaxation techniques, such as progressive muscular relaxation(PMR) and the relaxation response.
When doing the relaxation response patients are asked to sit quietly and comfortably and close their eyes. They then start by relaxing the muscles of their feet and work up their body.

Question 36

What is the final stage of systematic desensitisation?

Answer 36

Gradual exposure:
The patient is introduced to their phobic object and they work their way up the anxiety hierarchy starting with the least frightening stage.
They use their relaxation technique whilst they are exposed to the phobic object.
Once they feel comfortable with that stage they move onto the next.
Eventually with repeated exposure to the phobic objects with relaxation and no fear, the phobia is eliminated.

Question 37

What are the positives of systematic desensitisation?

Answer 37

• Jones (1924) supports the use of SD to eradicate’Little Peter’s’ phobia. A white rabbit was presented to Little Peter at gradually closer distances and each time his anxiety levels lessoned. Eventually he developed affection for the white rabbit.
• Klosko et al. (1990) supports the use if SD. He assessed various therapies for the treatment of panic disorders and found that 87% of patients were panic free after receiving SD, compared to 50% on medication, 36% on a placebo and 33% receiving no treatment at all.

Question 38

What is the weakness of systematic desensitisation?

Answer 38

Behavioural treatments address the symptoms of phobias. However some critics believe that underlying causes of the phobia will remain. In the future symptom substitution will occur, when other abnormal behaviours replace the ones that have been removed.

Question 39

What is flooding?

Answer 39

Flooding is a behavioural treatment for phobias which involves directly exposing the phobic patient to their feared object.
Flooding stops the phobic responses very quickly because there is no option of avoidance. The patient learns that the phobic object is harmless, and therefore extinction occurs.
Flooding therapy sessions last around 2-3 hours which is much longer than SD.

Question 40

What is a strength of flooding?

Answer 40

Research support:
Wolpe (1960) supports the use of flooding to remove a patient’s phobia of being in cars. The girl was forced into a car and driven around for 4 hours until her hysteria was eradicated. This demonstrates how effective flooding is as a treatment fir phobias.

• is ethical, patients give fully informed consent.

Question 41

What is a weakness of flooding?

Answer 41

-is a highly traumatic experience and many patients may be unwilling to continue with the therapy until the end = may result in a waste of time and money.
Because flooding is traumatic it is unsuitable for children as they are also unable to give fully informed consent.