Psychology Unit 1 test Flashcards
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Good Psychology Does NOT
allow a person to see into the SOUL of another.
answer the “Big Questions” about life.
fix peoples’ problems
attempt to make people Feel Good
What identifies Bad Psychology?
Simple Answers
Giving advice
Makes a celebrity of the psychologist
Overly generalized information
vague or ambiguous terms
attempts to make subject feel good to easily
promises too much
overly generalized use of limited research findings
pseudoscience
What identifies good psychology?
ethical
promotes well-being
encourages healthy change
recognizes not all problems can be fixed
recognizes that seemingly unsolvable problems may be resolvable
empowers the subject
recognizes that personal change requires hard work
sensitive to cultural differences
validates perspective, not necessarily actions
operates from a scientifically supported framework
5 pillars of Psychology
Biological
Cognitive
Development
Social & Personality
Mental & Physical Health
Things included in the Biological Pillar of Psychology
biological psychology
Neurology
Neuroscience
Sensation
Consciousness
Things included in the Cognitive Pillar of Psychology
Perception
Thinking
Intelligence
Memory
Things included in the Development Pillar of Psychology
Learning and maturing through the stages and processes of Human Lifespan Development.
Things included in the Social & Personality Pillar of Psychology
Social Psychology
Personality
Motivation
Emotion
What are the 2 allied areas of the Social & Personality Pillar of Psychology
Social Influences
Personalities
Social influences affect on psychology
contribute to the way our personalities develop
Personalities affect on psychology
guide the social environments we seek out and how we respond within them
Mental & Physical Health Pillar of Psychology
absence of pathology
presence of well-being
Psychological Disorders
Psychotherapy
Mental Health Treatments
Stress
Lifestyle influences
BioPsychoSocial Model
Medical Model which recognizes that there is greater complexity to a person’s apparent symptoms. Biology, Psychology, and Social elements all contribute to causes and outcomes.
SEQUENCE of GOALS in RESEARCH:
Describe
Explain
Predict
Modify
Describe
Tell precisely what is observed. No Interpretation, no judgment, no predictions
Explain
Why does the behavior occur (or not occur)?
Predict
Under what conditions does it happen (or not happen)?
Modify
Alter the behavior. Make it happen or prevent it.
STEPS in the EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PROCESS
- Notice a Phenomenon and ask a Question about it.
- Formulate the Hypothesis
- Explore the scholarly and scientific literature
- Design a Study
- Conduct the study and collect data
- Analyze the Data
- Report the Results
Anecdote
an interesting story; may lead us to ask questions and then identify interesting and useful directions for research.
Types of Studies
Survey, Psychological Test, Experiment, Correlation, Naturalistic Observation, Case Study
Operational Definitions
A precise, measurable definition for a term used in the study
Descriptive Statistics
Help to summarize data with measures such as Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Coefficient of Correlation, Percentages, etc.
Inferential Statistics
Help us to determine whether, and how strongly, our results are not predicted by chance
Proof
a piece of affirming evidence for something
prove
all possible data affirms
Replication
repeating studies to demonstrate that the findings were reliable
Variations
test the same hypothesis with different operational methods to see that we can generalize the findings to different contexts
Reliability
the measure will come out the same way when measured under varied circumstances and across time.
Validity
the test actually measures what we say it measures
Experiment
reveals cause-and-effect relationships
Correlation
identifies the strength and direction in which two variables shift together
Field Observation
naturalistic observation; observing subjects in their natural environment, without them knowing they are being observed
Laboratory observation
controlled observation; brings subjects into a lab and puts them in a situation to observe how they respond
(Psychological) Test
conduct standardized assessments to identify a trait, property, or characteristic (i.e. IQ test)
Case (Study)
looking at a particular individual or situation
Survey
ask people for their opinion, experience, etc.
Survey strengths
Lots of info
Minimal cost and effort
Survey weaknesses
Requires quality selection of respondents for the best representation
Requires quality wording to avoid leading options
No guarantee of full demographic participation
Subjects may lie, fail to recall, or give low effort answers
Requires avoiding the temptation to assemble amateur surveys to save money
Bad surveys provides no greater information than guesswork but adds the risk of feeling that inaccurate information is justified due to having run the survey
Field observation strengths
Behavior “in the wild”
Objective observation of what subjects actually do in their own environment
Field observation weaknesses
Hawthorne Effect
High time and monetary expense involved in being in the right location at the right time to observe the actual behavior
Time, place, and angle of observers can limit what they KNOW absolutely
Hawthorne Effect
when subjects change behavior due to knowledge of being watched
Case study strengths
Personal and insightful
Case study weaknesses
Do not generalize
Cuts out influential social/cultural/historical context
Test Strengths
High quantity of information gained very quickly
Reliable and valid
Test Weaknesses
Abstract concepts are complex and require interpretation
Easy to construct badly
Standardization and validation can be time consuming and expensive
Must be performed under strict standard conditions to be valid
Tests may inadvertently measure the wrong thing
Correlation strengths
Quick to run once raw data is available
Quick to determine the apparent relationship between variables
Correlation weaknesses
Does not show causation
Relationship does not identify possible third factors/variables
Experiment strengths
Only method that can show cause and effect relationships
Experiment Weaknesses
can be time consuming and proceed very slowly
Laboratory Observation Strengths
Greater control over observation conditions
Researchers can provide settings that are conducive to the type of behavior they want to observe
Laboratory Observation Weaknesses
Hawthorne effect changes how subjects behave when they know they are being observed
Independent Variable (IV)
the cause; the experiment manipulates this to see what effect it will have on the dependent variable
Dependent Variable
the effect or outcome; caused by the independent variable
Confounding variable
anything which the experimenters can’t anticipate or control for that might influence the results
2 fundamental forms of learning
classical (Pavlovian)
instrumental (operant)
Classical conditioning
when one associates a stimulus (e.g., a symbol for vacation, like a big beach towel) with an emotional event (like a burst of happiness)
2 reasons for studying Classical conditioning
- straightforward test of associative learning that can be used to study other, more complex behaviors
- always occurring in our lives; its effects on behavior have important implications for understanding normal and disordered behavior in humans
unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs
Unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR)
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
Instrumental conditioning
Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviors and their consequences
Reinforcer
Any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed it again.
Law of effect
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects.
Punisher
A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behavior when it is made a consequence of the behavior.
Taste aversion learning
The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.
Fear conditioning
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear.
Conditioned compensatory response
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response.
Blocking
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials
Prediction error
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising)
Preparedness
The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association
Extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning)
Spontaneous recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction.
Renewal effect
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction
Context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs
Stimulus control
When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it
Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced.
It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
Categorize
To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.
Quantitative law of effect
A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors.
A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.
Reinforcer devaluation effect
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable
Goal-directed behavior
Instrumental behavior influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect
Observational learning
Learning by observing the behavior of others.
Social Learning Theory
The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others.
Social models
Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviors
Vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person
Response
behavior caused by or chosen according to some antecedent, situation, expectation, or other force acting upon the person (or organism) which then responds to that antecedent
Antecedents
triggers that provide a stimulus to begin a behavior.
Reinforcement
Increases the Likelihood of repeating the behavior. Any consequence that makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future. (may be weak or strong)
Punishment
Decreases the Likelihood of repeating the behavior. Any consequence that makes the behavior less likely to occur in the future. (It may be weak or strong)
Positive Consequence
Applying, adding, providing, or doing something to the learner so the learner gains something. It may be something desired or something unwanted. Gaining pain or pleasure still involves gaining something.
Negative Consequence
Subtracting, Removal or Deprivation of something from the learner. may be something desired or something unwanted. Losing pain or pleasure still involves losing something.
Positive Reinforcement
(Reward) Add something that is liked, this increases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
(Escape / Avoidance) Remove something that is not liked, this increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior.
Escape
when you already have a bad situation, and you engage in a behavior to end the pain or trouble
Avoid
when you act to prevent getting into a bad situation
Positive Punishment
(Aversion) Add something that is disliked, this decreases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
Negative Punishment
(Cost / Fine) Remove something, this decreases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
Salience of particular consequences
what is forefront in the mind at the time
Problems with Punishments
- Ethically Questionable
- inconsistent
- Ventilation of Emotions - revenge
- Doesn’t outweigh emotions
- Not Immediate
- Temporary effects
- Response of fear, anxiety, or rage
- Punishing agent is seen as reason for good behavior
- Teaches sneakiness
- Models aggression as problem solving strategy
- Inadvertantly causes reinforcements
- Doesn’t teach what TO DO, only what not to do
- Teaches conformity and not morality; teaches fear and not respect
How to use extinction
- identify reinforcers
- stop reinforcers
- provide reinforcements for Replacement Behavior
- Beware, behavior will EXAGGERATE and INTENSIFY, then diminish and disappear
Shaping
positively reinforcing actions that bring the subject closer to the intended outcome
Appearance
surface structure
Decoding
reading, identifying what the item means
Classifying
identifying what classes something belongs to
Applying
using the information by making it work in an example
Synthesis
integrating information and ideas from various previously unrelated sources
Origination
creating new information or ways of understanding, explaining, or developing
3-Component process of Memory
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Reasons for “bad memory”
Fail to actually learn
Bad organization of memories
Encounter interfering info
