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MCAT > Psychology & Sociology > Flashcards

Psychology & Sociology Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Experimental Study

A

Experimental studies manipulate an independent variable to observe how a dependent variable changes

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2
Q

Independent Variable

A

Independent Variables are manipulated (usually on the x-axis of a graph)

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3
Q

Dependent Variable

A

Dependent Variables change in response to independent variable (usually on y axis)

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4
Q

Confounding Variable

A

Confounding variables affect both the independent and dependent variable

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5
Q

Mediating Variable

A

Mediating variables provide a causal link between two variables

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6
Q

Moderating Variable

A

Moderating variables change the intensity of a relationship between two other variables

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7
Q

Operationalization

A

Operationalization is the process of making a variable measurable

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8
Q

Positive vs. Negative Controls

A

In experimental studies, negative controls receive effectively no treatment, and positive controls receive a treatment that is known to affect the outcome of interest

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9
Q

Randomization & Blinding

A

Randomization and blinding help improve the validity of any study design

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10
Q

Observational Studies

A

Observational studies analyze relationships among variables but do not manipulate the variables

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11
Q

Randomized Control Trials

A

Participants randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group

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12
Q

Cross-Sectional Studies

A

Sample a population and measure various things about that group

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13
Q

Case Control Studies

A

Compare individuals with the outcome of interest (cases) and unaffected individuals (controls)

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14
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

Multiple measures are made over time

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15
Q

Cohort Studies

A

People are grouped by some organizing principle, often age, and followed throughout time

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16
Q

Retrospective Studies

A

Analyze participants’ history (backwards in time)

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17
Q

Prospective Studies

A

Analyze participants moving forward in time

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18
Q

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

A

Combine data from many studies + critical or quantitative assessment

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19
Q

Ethical Standards of Medical Research

A

Informed consent, favorable risk-benefit ratio, scientific validity, independent review, social and clinical value, fair subject selection, and the principle of respect

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20
Q

Experimental Methods

A

Can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed

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21
Q

Experimental Measures

A

Can be objective or subjectiveV

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22
Q

Validity

A

Relates to accuracy and meaningfulness of a study’s results

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23
Q

Internal Validity

A

How well we can draw causal conclusions from the data

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24
Q

External Validity

A

How well experiment generalizes to real-world outcomes

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25
Q

Construct Validity

A

How well an assessment measures what it intends to (content, criterion, and predictive validity)

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26
Q

Accuracy/Validity

A

Whether measure produces values close to the objectively true value

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27
Q

Precision/Reliability

A

Whether the results are close to each other

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28
Q

Survey Methods

A

Often use questionnaires; This method is inexpensive but vulnerable to self-reporting bias

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29
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

Tendency to reply in a way that seems more socially acceptable (response bias)

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30
Q

Acquiescence Bias

A

Tendency to answer “yes” to question by default (response bias)

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31
Q

Representativeness

A

Idea that a sample should accurately reflect the population it’s taken from

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32
Q

Biological Approaches

A

Mechanistic processes that lead to behavior

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33
Q

Psychological Approaches

A

More interested in kinds of behavior that an individual may exhibit (normative/abnormal, positive/negative). Studied through observations of behavior and controlled experiments.

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34
Q

Sociological Approaches

A

Focus on the behavior, organization, and feelings of groups

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35
Q

How do genetics influence behavior?

A

Genetics influence behavior, most notably in the form of instinctual (hard-wired) behavior

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36
Q

What do adaptive traits contribute to?

A

Adaptive traits contribute to the fitness (mean lifetime reproduction) of an organism

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37
Q

What are some instinctual reflexes that newborns exhibit?

A

Newborns have rooting, sucking, palmar grasp, Moro, and Babinski reflexes

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38
Q

First year of human life

A

Caregiver focus, stranger anxiety at 7-8 months

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39
Q

1-2 years of human life

A

Complex motor behavior, identity formation, egocentrism

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40
Q

Critical Periods

A

Experiences can imprint on a child for life (especially when they are young)

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41
Q

Puberty/Adolescence

A

Adulthood, aging (w/ telomere degradation)

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42
Q

How does the endocrine system regulate behavior?

A

The endocrine system regulates both behavior and physiology by secreting hormones into the bloodstream

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43
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Major regulatory center, releases tropic hormones CRF, TRH, GnRH to the anterior pituitary

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44
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

Releases ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, GH

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45
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

Contains neurons that release ADH and oxytocin

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46
Q

What are the endocrine glands?

A

Hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, panceas, adrenal cortex/medulla, gonads (ovaries/testes)

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47
Q

Oxytocin

A

Important hormone for bonding, empathy, and trust; Uterine contractions, and milk letdown reflex during lactation

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48
Q

Prolactin

A

Important hormone for lactation; implicated in postpartum depression

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49
Q

Leptin (satisfied), ghrelin (hungry), neuropeptide Y (appetite)

A

Hormones that regulate hunger

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50
Q

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

A

Acute stress response (hormones)

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51
Q

Cortisol

A

Variety of cardiovascular, metabolic, immunologic, and homeostatic function (hormone)

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52
Q

Thyroid Hormone

A

Metabolic rate, neural development

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53
Q

Nervous system

A

Faster response to environmental stimuli

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54
Q

Reflexes

A

Completely autonomic responses

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55
Q

Afferent Neurons

A

Sensory neurons; Send signals to the CNS

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56
Q

Efferent Neurons

A

Motor neurons; send signals from the CNS to an effector

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57
Q

Somatic Motor Neurons

A

Synapse at neuromuscular junctions and cause muscle contraction through the release of acetylcholine

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58
Q

Describe neuron receptors

A

Receptors on the dendrites of neurons response to neurotransmitters. One receptor type is usually responsive to only one neurotransmitter.

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59
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

-70 mV (charge difference across the membrane)

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60
Q

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

A
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters INCREASE resting membrane potential, making it less negative (depolarization)
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters DECREASE this potential, making it more negative (hyper-polarization)
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61
Q

What are the types of chemicals that can interact with receptors?

A

Chemicals interacting with receptors are agonists (stimulate response) or antagonists (block receptor)

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62
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

All nerves except brain and spinal cord (somatic and autonomic nervous systems)

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63
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

(peripheral) Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

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64
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Part of peripheral nervous system that controls muscle movement

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65
Q

Enteric Nervous Sytem

A

Branch of the nervous system involved with regulation of the gastrointestinal tract

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66
Q

Central Nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord

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67
Q

Hindbrain

A

Cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

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68
Q

Midbrain

A

Substantia nigra, superior and inferior colliculi

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69
Q

Brainstem

A

Midbrain, medula oblongata, and pons

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70
Q

Forebrain

A

Largest region, divided into diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, and pineal gland) and telencephalon

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71
Q

Spine

A

Cervical (C1-C7), thoracic (T1-T12), lumbar (L1-L5), sacral (S1-S5; fused in adults), coccyx (tailbone); nerves innervating specific body areas originate at distinct levels of the spine

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72
Q

Brain Imaging Techniques

A
  • Electroencephalograms (EEG) measure activity through electrodes as wave forms
  • Computed Tomography (CT) = X-rays taken in 360° and assembled in 2D slices to show a 3D image
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and is especially useful for soft tissues
  • Functional MRI (fMRI) measures perfusion of brain regions
  • Positron emission tomography (PET) uses radio-labeled glucose to measure metabolic activity
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73
Q

What pathway does sensory input follow?

A

Stimulus –> Transduction (stimulus converted to action potential) –> sensation –> perception

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74
Q

What kind of input do sensory receptors give?

A

Sensory receptors give information on location, type/modality, intensity, and duration of input

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75
Q

What different types of receptors are there?

A

Photoreceptors (light); mechanoreceptors (sound, acceleration, touch); chemoreceptors (taste. smell); baroreceptors (pressure); proprioceptors (body position); nocireceptors (pain); osmoceptors (concentration)

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76
Q

Absolute Threshold

A

Minimum signal to be detected (not the same as threshold of conscious perception)

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77
Q

Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

A

Amount stimulus must change to be noticed

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78
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

Ability to pick up tru/false presence/absence of stimulus from environment

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79
Q

Top-Down vs. Bottom-up Processing

A

Using expectations to structure perception vs. taking in info first

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80
Q

Gestalt Laws

A

Principles describing how we integrate stimuli into consciously perceived shapes

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81
Q

Visible LIght

A

EM waves with wavelengths between 380nm and 740nm (violet to red)

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82
Q

Rods

A

Rods contain rhodopsin and are extremely sensitive to light, but do not detect color. They help us see in low light conditions, such as at night. Rods need to undergo dark adaption when moving from light to dark.

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83
Q

Cones

A

Found in the macula and the fovea, near the center of the visual field and in the back of the eye. They are responsible for seeing color and seeing detail (acuity)
- 3 different types: short (blue, S), medium (green, M), and long (red, L)

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84
Q

Cornea

A

A small, curved and translucent portion of the epithelium that light must pass through to enter eye

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85
Q

Lens

A

Boundary between anterior and posterior chambers; changing its shape changes focus of light entering the eye (flattening = helps see farther-away objects, rounding = helps see nearer objects)

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86
Q

Iris

A

Structure in front of lens that controls amount of light entering (dilation = widening due to sympathetic NS stimulation or low light; constriction = narrowing due to parasympathetic stimulation or bright light)

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87
Q

Retina

A

Innermost layer of eye

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88
Q

Sclera

A

Outermost layer of eye (white color of the eye)

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89
Q

Choroid

A

Vascular structure between retina and sclera

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90
Q

Basic Pathway of LIght

A

Outside > Cornea > anterior chamber > lens > posterior chamber > retina (sensing)

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91
Q

Phototransduction

A

Photo transduction starts in the retina (rods and cones). Retina has three vertical layers: photoreceptors (rods/cones), bipolar cells (connect to ganglion cells), ganglion cells (comprise optic nerve); Horizontal cells laterally connect photoreceptors and bipolar cells, amacrine cells laterally connect bipolar and ganglion cells

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92
Q

Visual Input

A

Sent towards visual cortex by optic nerve; at optic chiasm, nasal sides of optic nerve cross over so that right visual field –> right visual cortex and vice versa

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93
Q

What happens in the visual input pathway after the optic chiasm?

A

After chiasm, optic pathway synapses at lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN; contains magnocellular neurons [motion] and parvocellular neurons [detail]), and sends input to visual cortex and superior colliculi

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94
Q

Motion Parallax

A

Monocular depth clue based on relative motion of near vs. far objects

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95
Q

Feature Detection

A

Ability to detect motion, color, shape, timing, and size

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96
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Integrate simultaneous input

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97
Q

Serial Processing

A

Sort incoming input to find specific info

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98
Q

What kind of waves are detected by hair cells in ear?

A

Sound waves (longitudinal)

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99
Q

Outer Ear

A

Catches sound waves with shape

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100
Q

Middle Ear

A

Amplifies sound waves (malleus, incus, stapes)

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101
Q

Inner Ear

A

turns vibrations into action potential via endolymph-bathed hair cells with stereocilia detectors

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102
Q

Organ of Corti

A

In inner ear; hosts endolymph-bathed hair cells on basilar membrane

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103
Q

Left Temporal Lobe

A

Speech

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104
Q

Right Temporal Lobe

A

Sounds and Music

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105
Q

Somatosensation

A

All sensation about and within the body

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106
Q

Two-Point Threshold

A

Minimum distance two simultaneously-stimulated points must be apart to be perceived as two points of stimulation, not one

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107
Q

Physiological Zero

A

The temperature we perceive as neither hot nor cold. It is approximately 85°-90°F (29°-32°C)

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108
Q

Gate Theory of Pain

A

We can turn certain signals on or off depending on the overall pattern of sensory input

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109
Q

Taste

A

Processed in the taste center of the thalamus, then sent to the gustatory cortex

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110
Q

Smells

A

First processed in the olfactory bulb, then passed along olfactory tract to limbic system and elsewhere

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111
Q

Consciousness

A

Consciousness is awareness of our surroundings and ourselves and can be split into at least four broad states: alertness, daydreaming, drowsiness, and sleep

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112
Q

Sleep Stages

A

Alertness (beta waves), drowsiness (alpha waves), stage 1 (theta waves, light sleep), stage 2 (theta waves, sleep spindles and K-complexes, memory consolidation), stage 3 (delta waves, deep sleep/slow-wave sleep, memory processing), REM sleep (rapid eye movement, dreaming, irregular respiration and heart rate).

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113
Q

Sleep Cycles

A

Repeat throughout the night; About 90 mins in adults

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114
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

The body’s 24-hour clock is called the circadian rhythm and is regulated by melatonin and cortisol

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115
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Sleep-wake disorders are called dyssomnias and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

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116
Q

Parasomnias

A

Sleep disorders that cause abnormal behaviors while sleeping are called parasomnias and include sleepwalking (somnabulism), night terrors, and nightmares

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117
Q

Theories about the Content of Dreams

A

Freud’s Idea of manifest and latent content of dreams and wish fulfillment; the activation-synthesis model; problem-solving theory; cognitive theory

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118
Q

Addiction

A

A pattern of compulsive behavior despite negative consequences

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119
Q

Dependence

A

The onset of withdrawal symptoms on cessation

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120
Q

Tolerance

A

Requiring larger doses to experience an effect

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121
Q

Mesolimbic Pathway

A

The mesolimbic pathway is the reward pathway often active in addiction. It consists of the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, olfactory tubule, and medial forebrain bundle

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122
Q

Stimulants

A

Stimulants increase CNS activity and include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and MDM

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123
Q

MDMA

A

MDMA increases energy and empathy and works by stimulating the release of seratonin, dopamine, and epinephrine

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124
Q

Amphetamines

A

Amphetamines increase energy and reduce appetite

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125
Q

Cocaine

A

Works by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

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126
Q

Depressents

A

Decrease CNS activity and include alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates

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127
Q

Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates

A

Both are most commonly used to treat anxiety, and are very dangerous in combination with alcohol

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128
Q

Korsakoff Syndrome

A

Often caused by chronic alcohol use. Its symptoms include memory loss, confusion, and confabulation

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129
Q

Opioids

A

Opioids are a group defined as opioid-receptor agonists and include morphine, heroine, codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and fentanyl; Are effective for pain relief, but tend to be highly addictive and also constitute a major health crisis in the United States

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130
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Distort perceptions and enhance sensory experiences. This group includes LSD, ketamine, psilocybin, and PCP

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131
Q

Marijuana

A

Marijuana is usually not put into strictly any one category. It acts on endocannabinoid receptors that has a wide range of effects and medical uses.

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132
Q

Selective Attention

A

Ability to pay attention to just a few things in our environment and pay less or no attention to others

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133
Q

Broadbent Filter Model

A

Unimportant and background information is filtered out of the sensory buffer and lost

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134
Q

Treismann Attenuation Model

A

Unimportant and background information is attenuated, but if something important happens, we can notice. Explains cocktail party effect

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135
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

We miss things if we’re focusing elsewhere; invisible gorilla experiment

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136
Q

Change Blindness

A

We miss things that have gradually or subtly changed in our environment

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137
Q

Multitasking

A

Multitasking may happen sequentially or in parallel; Often impairs performance in both tasks

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138
Q

Simultaneous Attention

A

Processing two tasks at the same time to multitask

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139
Q

Sequential Attention

A

Switching between tasks rapidly to multitask

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140
Q

Allport’s Module Resource Theory

A

Attention isn’t regulated by a single center, but divided among modules in the brain according to task. Multitasking using different modules works well, but using similar ones does not.

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141
Q

Attention-Deficity/hyperactivity disorder

A

Inattentive type, hyperactive impulsive type, and combined type

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142
Q

Information Processing Model

A

Information processing model treats the brain somewhat like a computer, handling input and creating output

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143
Q

Behaviorism

A

Behaviorism focuses on measurable external outcomes with no attempt to directly determine internal states

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144
Q

Jean Piaget introduced the idea of cognitive stages

A

Sensorimotor (birth to two years): Lacking object permanence, circular reactions, stranger anxiety

Preoperational (two to seven years): Symbolic thought, egocentrism, lack of conservation

Concrete Operational (seven to eleven years): Understand conservation, logical reasoning

Formal Operational (adolescence to adulthood): Abstract logic, handle hypotheticals, reason abstractly

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145
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

Problem-solving skills

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146
Q

Crystalized Intelligence

A

Knowledge and its application.

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147
Q

Cognitive Performance Declines with Age

A

Dementia is defined as severe cognitive decline. It is often caused by Alzheimer’s disease, but can have a multitude of causes

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148
Q

Down Syndrome

A

Caused by trisomy 21 (having three copies of chromosome 21 instead of two); Impacts cognitive functioning

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149
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A

Caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Both impact cognitive functioning

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150
Q

Problem-Solving Strategies

A

Trial and error, algorithms, deductive and inductive reasoning, and analogies

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151
Q

Mental Set

A

Framework for solving a problem

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152
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

Seeing only a prescribed set of uses for a particular object or property

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153
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

People’s tendency to maintain beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

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154
Q

Overconfidence and Underconfidence

A

Can both get in the way of problem solving

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155
Q

Biases and Heuristics

A

Patterns used to quickly make judgments, heuristics used to problem solve

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156
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Disregarding of evidence contrary to one’s beliefs, favorable interpretation of ambiguous evidence, and selective recall of only supporting evidence

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157
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

Phenomenon that all events in retrospect seem significantly more predictable than they were at the time, and the actual outcome appears as the only likely outcome

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158
Q

Causation Bias

A

Tendency to infer cause-and-effect to almost any set of events occurring in close proximity or that we expect to be causally related

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159
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

Using prototypical categories to misestimate the likelihood of a certain behavior, outcome, or property

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160
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Believing that events that immediately come to mind are more likely (medical students disease)

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161
Q

Components of Language, from lowest to highest level

A

Phonetics (direct sounds that we produce), syntax (phrases/sentences), semantics (literal meaning), pragmatics (real-world language use, non-literal meaning

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162
Q

Sign language

A

Sign langauges share all components of language and are full-fledged linguistic systems

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163
Q

Three conflicting theories of language aquisition are tested on the MCAT

A

(1) Learning theory of language: all language is learned behavior (environmental stimuli, conditioning)

(2) Nativist Theory of Language Acquisition: Humans have an innate, hard-wired capacity for learning language

(3) Interactionist Theory: Emphasizes interactions with the environment, without denying inborn capacity

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164
Q

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

A

The language we speak shapes our cognition

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165
Q

Linguitic Determinism (strong Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

A

Language simply dictates thought

166
Q

Aphasia

A

Impairment of the ability to communicate

167
Q

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

Fluent speech that doesn’t make sense; Difficulty with language comprehension. It is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in the superior temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere and is classified as both a fluent aphasia and a receptive aphasia

168
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A

Extreme difficulty producing language, without significant difficulties understanding spoken language. It is caused by damage to Broca’s area in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere

169
Q

Conduction Aphasia

A

Severe difficulty repeating words and is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, a structure connecting Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas

170
Q

Encoding (visual, auditory, semantic)

A

Transformation of sensory input into a cognitive object

171
Q

Priming

A

Our response to subsequent stimuli based on our exposure to prior ones

172
Q

Negative Priming

A

Prior stimulus inhibits the processing of a current one, such as in the Stroop task

173
Q

Chunking, mneumonics, method of loci

A

Enhance learning

174
Q

Memory systems can be ordered by th time spans in which the retain information

A

Instantaneous (sensory memory), brief (short-term memory and working memory) and life-long (long-term memory)

175
Q

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A

Drawn on by working memory

176
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Knowing what

177
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Knowing How

178
Q

Other kinds of memory

A

Flashbulb, eidetic, iconic memory

179
Q

Semantic Networks of Memory

A

Semantic networks store memory, retrieved through spreading activation

180
Q

Source Monitoring Errors

A

Accurate information, wrong source

181
Q

Non-Associative Learning

A

Encompasses habituation, dishabituation, sensitization, extinction, instinctual drift, imprinting, latent learning and observational learning

182
Q

Associative Learning

A

Conditioning

183
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Unconditioned stimulus/response > conditioned stimulus/response (Pavlov’s Dogs)

184
Q

Conditioned Stimulus

A

Previously neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus (Pavlov’s Dogs)

185
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Frequency of behavior is increased by ereinforcement and decreased by punishment

186
Q

Positive Operant Conditioning

A

Addition of a stimulus

187
Q

Negative Operant Conditioning

A

Removal of a stimulus

188
Q

Reinforcement Schedules

A

Continuous, fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval

189
Q

Shaping

A

Rewarding progressive approximations of a target behavior

190
Q

Capturing

A

Waiting around for a behavior to happen to reward

191
Q

Latent Learning

A

Background learning that happens and information gathered even when no rewards are present

192
Q

Extinction

A

The decrease in response over time in the absence of reinforcement, while instinctive drift refers to reversion to instinctive behavior

193
Q

Observational Learning

A

Was famously studied in Alfred Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment

194
Q

Imitation

A

A subtype of observational learning

195
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Mirror Neurons are the putative biological basis of observational learning

196
Q

Jean Piaget

A

Introduced the idea of cognitive stages

197
Q

Ekman’s Universal Emotions

A

Fear, anger, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise, contempt (added to the model later)

198
Q

Limbic System

A

Associated with emotion (especially amygdala [emotion processing] and hypothalamus [connects the CNS with the endocrine system])

199
Q

Components of Emotion

A

Emotions have cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components

200
Q

Major Theories of Emotion

A

James-Lange: Stiumulus > physiological response > emotion

Schachter-Singer: Adds contextual appraisal to James-Lange

Cannon-Bard: Stimulus > simultaneous physiolocial and cognitive responses > emotion/behavior

Lazarus: Stimulus > labeling > physiological response > emotion

201
Q

Stressors

A

Independent (we have no control over) vs. Dependent (we have control over)

202
Q

Conflicts

A

Avoidance-Avoidance (two bad things), approach-approach (two good things), Approach-avoidance (one thing w/ pros and cons), double approach-avoidance (two things w/ pros and cons)

203
Q

Different Kinds of Stress

A

Eutress: Good

Neustruss: Neutral

Distress: Bad

204
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

Three stages of stress adaptation: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

205
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

Repeated Exposure to unavoidable stressors causes learned helplessness

206
Q

Motivation

A

Drives our actions. It can either be extrinsic or intrinsic

207
Q

Instincts

A

Fixed behavioral patterns

208
Q

Drive Reduction Theory

A

We’re motivated to return our body to homeostasis; Disturbances of homeostasis produce signals called drives that we seek to reduce

209
Q

Primary Drives vs. Secondary Drives

A

Primary drives are physiological and innate, while secondary drives are learned

210
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A

Physiological needs must be satisfied first, followed by safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization

211
Q

Expectancy Value Theory

A

Motivation will be highest if you expect to succeed and if goal is worth it

212
Q

Self-Determination Theory

A

Focuses on competence, autonomy, and relatedness for intrinsic motivation.

213
Q

Opponent-Process Theory

A

After an initial intense reaction, the opposite reaction is triggered and over time, can dominant

214
Q

Attitudes have ABC components

A

Affective, behavioral, and cognitive

215
Q

Thomas Theorem

A

If people define situations as real, they have real consequences

216
Q

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

A

How we resolve conflicts when beliefs/knowledge don’t align with our actions

217
Q

Elaboration Liklihood Model

A

Central-route persuasion (relies on reason) is effective for lasting change, but more difficult to achieve; Peripheral-Route persuasion relies on emotional appeal but creates superficial change

218
Q

Erikson’s Life Stages

A

Trust vs. Mistrust (up to age 1), autonomy vs. Shame/doubt (ages 1-3), initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6), industry vs. inferiority (6-12), identity vs. role confusion (ages 12-20), intimacy vs. isolation (ages 20-40), generativity vs. stagnation (ages 40-65), integrity vs. despair (ages 65+)

219
Q

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

A

Pre-conventional Morality (obedience, then self-interest), conventional morality (conformity, then law and order) and post-conventional morality (social contract, then universal human ethics)

220
Q

Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality

A

id (most basic wants, operates on pleasure principle, fantasies called wish-fulfillment), ego (reality principle, navigates wants of id through real world), and superego (who we think we should be, our ego-ideal)

221
Q

Freudian Defense Mechanisms

A

Regression: A return to an earlier developmental stage
Reaction Formation: An unacceptable desire turned into its opposite
Displacement: Shifting impulses from an unacceptable to an acceptable target
Sublimation: Redirection of strong unacceptable desires ino a more appropriate behavior
Projection: Placing one’s own uncomfortable feelings onto other people
Rationalization: Coming up with excuses for feelings
Suppression: Consciously disregarding uncomfortable feelings
Repression: Unconsciously disregarding uncomfortable feelings

222
Q

Freud’s Psychosexual Perspective on Human Development posits that humans go through 5 stages

A

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Failure to successfully navigate stages can cause lasting compelxes

223
Q

Carl Jung

A

Collecting unconscious containing archetypes such as the persona, shadow, and anima or animus

224
Q

Behaviorism

A

Concerned with only observing overt behaviors, not speculating about internal states

225
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

Introduced the importance of empathy, the idea of unconditional positive regard, and a focus on self-actualization

226
Q

Trait Theories of Personalities

A

Big 5 Perosnality traits and the PEN model divide personalities into a taxonomy of traits

227
Q

Type Theories

A

Such as astrology or the Myers-Briggs Type inventory focus on discrete types. Generally considered to be not very reliable

228
Q

Social Cognitive Perspective

A

Spawned the idea of reciprocal determinism, the idea that our relationships shape our behavior and our behavior shapes our relationships

229
Q

Biological Perspectives of personality

A

Focus on genetic factors

230
Q

Biomedical vs. Biopsychosocial Approaches

A

Biomedical approaches describe disease as purely biological, while biopsychosocial approaches see it as a multi-factorial phenomenon; the DSM-5 is the current standard for classification of mental disorders

231
Q

Depressive Disorders

A
  • Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is defined by at least one two-week episode of major depression
  • Dysthymia (also known as persistent depressive disorder) is less severe than MDD but lasts at least 2 years
  • Seasonal Affective Disorder is depression with a regular seasonal onset
232
Q

Bipolar Disorders

A
  • Bipolar I is characterized by manic episodes and does not require dpressive episodes to be diagnosed
  • Bipolar II is characterized by at least one major depressive episode and one or more episodes of hypomania
  • Cyclothymic disorder also involves hypomania, but usually less intense depression
233
Q

Anxiety Disorders

A
  • Generalized anxiety disorder involves extremely high levles of stress for everyday, routine aspects of life
  • Social anxiety disorder is the onset of intense feelings of stress in social situations
  • Illness Anxiety disorder is excessive concern about medical conditions in the absence of physical symptoms
234
Q

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

A

The presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) that can only be quieted temporarily by compulsions (ritualistic behavior)

235
Q

Body Dysmorphic Disorder

A

Obsessive focus on a perceived flaw in appearance (negligible or not present)

236
Q

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A

Caused by intense acute and/or chronic trauma; intrusive recollections (not necessarily visual), avoidance of stimuli related to trauma, negative changes in mood and cognitions related to the traumatic event and altered patterns of reactivity and arousal (symptoms >1 month)

237
Q

Somatic Disorders

A
  • Somatic symptom disorder is excessive preoccupation with a physical symptom
  • Conversion Disorder: impaired voluntary motor/sensory function with no apparent biological cause
238
Q

Dissociative Disorder

A
  • Dissociative Identity Disorder: Different personalties at different times within the same individual
  • Dissociative Amnesia: retrograde amnesia in which people lose episodic memories of their own lives
239
Q

Depersonlization/Derealization Disorder

A

Disconnection from own existence, as if observing oneself

240
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  • Prodromal Phase: Period of poor adjustment before acute illness
  • Positive symptoms (added: hallucinations and delusions) vs. negative symptoms (subtracted: flattening affect, lethargy, etc.). Catatonia is also common.
  • Biological cause of schizophrenia is thought to be primarily excess dopamine production. Schizophrenia is also highly heritable, with a major genetic component and a high concordance rate
  • Treatment of schizophrenia usually involves antipsychotics, neuroleptics, and therapy-based approaches
241
Q

Personality Disorders

A

Pervasive Maladaptive behavior; ego-syntonic (patients don’t perceive the problem)

Cluster A: Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders
Cluster B: Antisocial, narcissistic, histrionic, and borderline personality disorders
Cluster C: Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive disorders

242
Q

Biological Causes of Parkinson’s Disease

A

Motor Tremors, etc., caused by cell death in the substantia nigra nad reduced dopamine expression; can be induced by dopamine antagonists

243
Q

Biological Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease

A

Form of dementia with emotional disturbances; correlated with beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein fibrillary tangles

244
Q

Biological Causes of Depression

A

Serotonin and dopamine deficiencies are currently thought to be the main cause of depression; selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) increase serotonin levels in the brain

245
Q

How do Groups affect individual behavior?

A

Groups affect individual behavior through social facilitation, social loafing, and the bystander effect

246
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

Psychological arousal modulates performance. Optimal arousal = optimal performance

247
Q

Deindividualization

A

Loss of self-awareness in groups; low-perceived responsibility

248
Q

Group Polarization

A

A group’s opinions becoming more extreme than those of their individual members, due to group dynamics such as informative influence and normative influence

249
Q

Groupthink

A

Theory of why groups sometimes make very bad decisions without considering outside ideas
- 8 Factors: illusion of invulnerability, illusion of morality, illusion of unanimity, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters, collective rationalization, excessive stereotyping and mind guards

250
Q

Conformity

A

Lining up out behaviors or beliefs with the perspective of others

251
Q

Internalization (as a subtype of conformity)

A

Completely changing our beliefs to obtain conformity

252
Q

Compliance (as a subtype of conformity)

A

Adjusting our behavior, but internall dissenting

253
Q

Identification (as a subtype of conformity)

A

Middle ground focused on maintating relationships

254
Q

Soloman Asch Experiment

A

People will conform to group rpessure even when group is very wrong (line length experiment

255
Q

Compliance

A

Obeying requests from someone who has no power to enforce them. Techniques include the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique, and the low-ball technique

256
Q

Obedience

A

Obeying request from someone who as the power to enforce them (Stanford prison & milgram)

257
Q

Social Control (through sanctions)

A

How all our norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated

258
Q

Formal Norms

A

Encoded in laws or regulations and have specific penalites for violating them

259
Q

Informal Norms

A

Not written down, unliekly to have fixed penalties for violations (folkways, mores, taboos)

260
Q

Anomie

A

Mismatch between stated norms and the norms an individual responds to; often precedes the breakdown of traditional systems of moral regulation

261
Q

Deviance

A

Not following norms

262
Q

Differential Association Theory

A

Learned by association

263
Q

Labeling Approach

A

Deviance increases in frequency in response to being labeled deviant

264
Q

Primary Deviance

A

Acts committed before receiving the label

265
Q

Secondary Deviance

A

Acts of deviance after receiving the label

266
Q

Fads

A

Behaviors with intense, brief popularity

267
Q

Mass Hysteria

A

Irrational, overblown response to a perceived threat. Sometimes the effects of the mass hysteria are more harmful than those of the threat

268
Q

Ways that we explain peoples behavior

A

In explaining people’s behavior, we make dispositional attributions (inherent factors) and situational attributions (external/temporary factors)

  • Consistency and distinctiveness cues influence which attribution to use, as well as cultural influences (collectivistic - favors situational, individualistic - favors dispositional)
269
Q

Attributions

A

The process by which individuals explain the cause of behavior and events

270
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

Making preferentially dispositional attributions of other people

271
Q

Actor-observer bias

A

Dispositional attributions for others, situational attributions for ourselves

272
Q

Self-Serving Bias

A

Making dispositional attributions for our own good outcomes, and situational attributions for out own bad outcomes

273
Q

Internal and External Locus of Contorl

A

Focus on own actions (internal) or circumstances (external) to explain life outcomes

274
Q

Halo Effect

A

Perceptions of success/attractiveness spill over into our evaluations of people in other domains

275
Q

Just-World Hypothesis

A

Cognitive error of assuming good outcomes occur in good people and vice versa

276
Q

Prejudice

A

Feelings and attitudes towards groups, people. or objects

277
Q

Stereotypes

A

Contain specific content (paternalistic, admiration, contemptuous, and envious)

278
Q

Discrimination

A

Actions taken to treat somebody differently based on their group or demogrpahic category membership and/or existing prejudices. Can be individual discrimination or institutional discrimination

279
Q

Self Fulfilling Prophecies

A

Ways in which we alter or sabotage our behavior in response to stereotypes

280
Q

Stereotype Threat and Stereotype Boost

A

Refers to how even subconscious stereotypes can alter performanceWh

281
Q

Stigmatized

A

When society strongly disapproves of something, it is said to be stigmatized or have stigma

282
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

Viewing all phenomena through one’s own cultural lens

283
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

Taking the perspective of different cultures with different normative behaviors from one’s own

284
Q

Verbal Communication

A

Literal words that we speak, write, sign, text or otherwise use

285
Q

Nonverbal Communication

A

Covers everything that is not verbal communication and is a fundamental form of communication for both humans and animals

286
Q

Self-Presentation Strategies

A

Self-disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and altercasting

287
Q

Dramaturgical approach to self-presentation or impression management

A

States that we maintain both a front-stage self and a back-stage self

288
Q

Attraction

A

Influenced by physical attractiveness, proximity, and similarity

289
Q

Aggression

A

Often found in hierarchical environments and regulated or restrained by the prefrontal cortex

290
Q

Attachment

A

Bond between children and their caregivers

291
Q

Secure Attachment

A

Only mild distress when caregiver leaves, quickly self-regulating and happy on regurn

292
Q

Ambivalent Attachment

A

Intense distress when caregiver leaves, followed by mixed signals on return

293
Q

Avoidant Attachement

A

No apparent concern for caregiver leaving or returning, thought to stem from neglectful relationships

294
Q

Disoriented/Disorganized Attachment

A

Hesitant, contradictory, and confused behavior both on the caregivers departure and return; often signals abuse

295
Q

Altruism

A

Helping other people at some cost to oneself. Altruism may help genetically similar organisms, such as kin, survive

296
Q

Inclusive Fitness

A

The idea that natural selection can act on groups

297
Q

Social Support

A

Emotional support, informational support, material support, or companionship support

298
Q

Mating Behavior

A

The description of mate selection in a species and believed to often be non-random

299
Q

Fisherian Selection

A

Preference for physical traits or behaviors that have no use besides attracting mates, such as peacock feathers

300
Q

Game Theory

A

Simulating games where all players are acting on incomplete information to make choices that affect one another. This has been used to model ecological interactions (prisoners dilemma)

301
Q

Identity

A

Can refer to both personal identity and social identity

302
Q

Demographic Identity

A

Includes race, ethnicity, and nationality

303
Q

Gender Identity

A

Contains both sex and gender in this category

304
Q

Gender

A

A social construct by which we identify ourselves

305
Q

Sex

A

Refers to biological categories (how you were born)

306
Q

Sexual Orientation

A

Describes attraction to sexual partners and includes homosexuality, bisexuality, heterosexuality, asexuality, and pansexuality

307
Q

Identity Formation

A

Mediated by social factors

Socioeconomic class and religion are also categories of identity

308
Q

George Herbert Mead

A

Expanded the use of the term looking-glass self to describe the process by which we build conceptions of ourselves by what is reflected back at us about our behavior from others.

Integrating this feedback into our perception of self is called internalization

309
Q

Role-Playing or Role-Taking

A

Putting oneself in the role of others, while impression management describes how we seek to control how others see us

310
Q

Self-Concept

A

In broad terms, our perception of ourselves. This is made up of several self-schemas, which are traits we ascribe to ourselves

311
Q

Locus of Control

A

Whether a person thinks thier actions and qualities dictate outcomes (internal), or whether their circumstances do (external)

312
Q

Self-Efficacy

A

The degree to which people perceive themselves as having control over their situation and behavior

313
Q

Social Behavior

A

All human interactions are affected by social behavior

314
Q

Status

A

Any social category used to identify people

315
Q

Achieved Status

A

A person had to work to attain

316
Q

Ascribed Status

A

One that is thrust upon an individual

317
Q

Master Status

A

Overshadows other statuses a person holds

318
Q

Roles

A

Expectations that come with a certain status

319
Q

Role Strain

A

Competing demands within a role

320
Q

Role Conflict

A

Competing demands between roles

321
Q

Role Exit

A

Process of disengaging from a role

322
Q

Role Engulfment

A

A role dominates someone’s life

323
Q

Primary Groups

A

Long-lasting interactions with deep bonds

324
Q

Secondary Groups

A

Short lasting interactions and superficial bonds

325
Q

Peer Groups

A

Self-selected and usually consist of people who are largely similar

326
Q

Family Groups

A

Genetic or non-genetic relationships (such as partnerships, marriage, or adoption).

327
Q

In Groups

A

We identify ourselves as members, while out-groups are ones we do not belong to

328
Q

Social Networks

A

Include all connections and relationships a person has, regardless of type

329
Q

Formal Organizations

A

Defined rules for entering and exiting, usually have hierarchies, and willl continue to exist independent of any member, even all current members

330
Q

Different Types of Organizations

A

Coercive (must join)

Normative (shared ideals/goals)

Utilitarian (rewards/money)

331
Q

Bureaucracies

A

A particular kind of structured organzation

332
Q

Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy

A

Hierarchical structure, well-defined roles, responsibilities and chains of command, organized by specialization, and merit-based recruitment, employment, and promotion

333
Q

Iron Law of Oligarchy

A

Decision-making will be taken over by a few people

334
Q

McDonaldization

A

Focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control

335
Q

Microsociology and Macrosociology

A

Small vs. Large scale sociology

336
Q

Functionalism (Durkheim)

A

Components of society all perform a function, work together as a whole

337
Q

Manifest Functions

A

Intended

338
Q

Latent Functions

A

Hidden or unintended

339
Q

Dysfunctions

A

Harmful

340
Q

Conflict Theory (Marx)

A

Social groups compete for resources. Focus is on power differences and social inequality

341
Q

Symbolic Interactionism

A

Interactions using shared symbols (things we collectively ascribe meaning to)

342
Q

Rational Choice Theory

A

People choose actions to achieve preferences based on the pros and cons of each choice

343
Q

Social Exchange Theory

A

Social Interactions as exchanges with costs and benefits

344
Q

Feminist Theory

A

Understanding and remedying gender injustices

345
Q

Hidden Curriculum

A

Habits, values, and norms imparted without being an explicit part of the curriculum

346
Q

Segregation

A

Separation and unequal distribution of people by race, ethnicity, or otehr demographic factors

347
Q

Stratification

A

Division of society into layers of socioeconomic status

348
Q

Kinship

A

Descent (shared ancestry) vs. Affinity

349
Q

Primary kin

A

Related or very closely bonded

350
Q

Secondary Kin

A

Primary kin of primary kin

351
Q

Tertiary Kin

A

Secondary kin of primary kin or primary kin of secondary kin

352
Q

Religiosity

A

The measure of how religious a person considers themselves to be

353
Q

Religious Organizations

A

Chruches, denominations, sects, and cults (charismatic leader with tight control

354
Q

Secularization

A

Less belief in religion and its institutions

355
Q

Fundamentalism

A

Uncompromising literalism

356
Q

Government Forms

A

Monarchy, authoritarianism, and democracy

357
Q

Economic Systems

A

Capitalism, socialism, and communism

358
Q

Medicalization

A

Social construct of illness (addiction as disease vs. moral failure)

359
Q

The sick role

A

Rights and responsibilites granted to a sick individual

360
Q

Paternalism

A

Physicians not letting patients make thir own decisions or deliberatley underinforming them

361
Q

Modern Paradigm of Medical Ethics

A

Beneficence (acting in a patient’s best interest)

Nonmaleficience (doing no harm)

Patient Autonomy (patients have the right to make their own medical decisions)

Justice (duty to provide equal care to all)

362
Q

Illness Experience

A

The illness as a social construct from the afflicted individual’s perspective

363
Q

Epidemiology

A

Interested in the patterns of illness in a population

364
Q

Social Epidemiology

A

Focuses on how social factors contribute to illness and health

365
Q

Material Culture

A

Physical artifacts

366
Q

Symbolic Culture

A

Everything else (beliefs, values, rituals, symbols)

367
Q

Subcultures

A

Groups of people within a larger cultural framework with differing practices, norms, or values

368
Q

Mass Media

A

Radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and the internet. Broad diffusion of messages.

369
Q

Popular Culture

A

Mass media allows centralization and standardization of culture

370
Q

Culture Lag

A

Delay between changes (e.g. technologies) happening and cultural integration

371
Q

Culture Shock

A

Disorienting Experience of immersion in a new culture

372
Q

Assimilation

A

Integration into the redominant culture

373
Q

Multiculturalism

A

Preservation of cultures

374
Q

Cultural Transmission

A

Cultural elements transferred over time

375
Q

Cultural Diffusion

A

Transfer between different cultures

376
Q

Key Demographic Categories

A

Age (absolute years and cohorts/generations), sex, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, immigration status

377
Q

Important Generations

A

G.I. Generation or the Greatest Generation: born 1900 to 1920

Silent Generation: Born 1925-1945

Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to mid 1960s

Generation X: Born mid 1960s to early 1980s

Millennials: Born early 1980s to mid 1990s

Generation Z: Born late 1990s to 2010

Generation Alpha: Born 2010+

378
Q

Ideas Related to Race

A

Racialization: Imposing a racial identity

Racial Formation Theory: Use of racialization for political/social goals

379
Q

Immigration Status

A

Citizenship, permanent residency, visas (temporary/limitations), undocumented

380
Q

Demographic Transition Model

A

Stage 1 - High death rate, high birth rate

Stage 2 - Decreasing death rate, high birth rate

Stage 3 - Slowly decreasing death rate, decreasing birth rate

Stage 4 - low birth and death rate, stable population

Stage 5 (proposed): Low death rate, very low birth rate

381
Q

Migration

A

Emigration (out of a country, push factors) and immigration (into a country, pull factors)

382
Q

World Systems Theory

A

Created for understanding globalization

383
Q

Core Nations

A

High-skill labor requiring extensive capital investment

384
Q

Peripheral Nations

A

Lower-skilled labor and natural resources

385
Q

Semi-Peripheral

A

In Between

386
Q

Urban Decay and Urban Renewal

A

Economic changes to urban core areas

Gentrification: displacement, usually by economic factors, of poorer local residents as an area becomes more affluent

387
Q

Class Systems

A

Defined largely based on income, mobility possible

388
Q

Caste Systems

A

Hereditary Membership

389
Q

Financial Capital Money

A

Relationship with and ability to influence situations with money

390
Q

Social Capital

A

Social contacts and networking

391
Q

Cultural Capital

A

Prestigious signals defined by financial stability, relationship to money, and ability to chieve tasks and influence situations with money

392
Q

Class Consciousness

A

Awareness of class interests

393
Q

False Consciousness

A

Adopting of goals of another class

394
Q

Power

A

Ability to directly get things done

395
Q

Prestige

A

Signals that appear to correlate with power

396
Q

Privilege

A

Favorable assumptions or advantages due to features such as race, sex, and physical characteristics

397
Q

Intersectionality

A

Experiences of an individual are more than the sum of component demographics

398
Q

Absolute Poverty

A

Insufficient means to subsist

399
Q

Relative Poverty

A

Poorer than the surrounding community

400
Q

Marginal Poverty

A

Caused by a lack of stable employment

401
Q

Structural Poverty

A

Caused and enforced by overall economic structure

402
Q

Residential Segregation

A

Clustering of demographic groups

403
Q

Social Reproduction

A

The passing of social status (esp. poverty/inequality) from generation to generation

404
Q

Global Inequalities

A

Those differences between countries

405
Q

Prevalence

A

How many people in a population have a condition at a given time

406
Q

Incidence

A

How many individuals in a population are newly diagnosed with a condition over a given time frame

407
Q

Intergenerational Mobility

A

The ability for successive generations to rise or fall in status or class

408
Q

Intragenerational Mobility

A

Events within a person’s lifetime that chagne his/her status or class

409
Q

Vertical Mobility

A

A rise or fall in income

410
Q

Horizontal Mobility

A

Keeping the same income, but in a different occupation (including no occupation)

411
Q

Meritocracy

A

Promotion, advancement, and success are based on an individual’s capabilities

MCAT (6 decks)

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