Psychology & Sociology Flashcards
Blueprint MCAT Prep
Experimental Study
Experimental studies manipulate an independent variable to observe how a dependent variable changes
Independent Variable
Independent Variables are manipulated (usually on the x-axis of a graph)
Dependent Variable
Dependent Variables change in response to independent variable (usually on y axis)
Confounding Variable
Confounding variables affect both the independent and dependent variable
Mediating Variable
Mediating variables provide a causal link between two variables
Moderating Variable
Moderating variables change the intensity of a relationship between two other variables
Operationalization
Operationalization is the process of making a variable measurable
Positive vs. Negative Controls
In experimental studies, negative controls receive effectively no treatment, and positive controls receive a treatment that is known to affect the outcome of interest
Randomization & Blinding
Randomization and blinding help improve the validity of any study design
Observational Studies
Observational studies analyze relationships among variables but do not manipulate the variables
Randomized Control Trials
Participants randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group
Cross-Sectional Studies
Sample a population and measure various things about that group
Case Control Studies
Compare individuals with the outcome of interest (cases) and unaffected individuals (controls)
Longitudinal Design
Multiple measures are made over time
Cohort Studies
People are grouped by some organizing principle, often age, and followed throughout time
Retrospective Studies
Analyze participants’ history (backwards in time)
Prospective Studies
Analyze participants moving forward in time
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
Combine data from many studies + critical or quantitative assessment
Ethical Standards of Medical Research
Informed consent, favorable risk-benefit ratio, scientific validity, independent review, social and clinical value, fair subject selection, and the principle of respect
Experimental Methods
Can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
Experimental Measures
Can be objective or subjectiveV
Validity
Relates to accuracy and meaningfulness of a study’s results
Internal Validity
How well we can draw causal conclusions from the data
External Validity
How well experiment generalizes to real-world outcomes
Construct Validity
How well an assessment measures what it intends to (content, criterion, and predictive validity)
Accuracy/Validity
Whether measure produces values close to the objectively true value
Precision/Reliability
Whether the results are close to each other
Survey Methods
Often use questionnaires; This method is inexpensive but vulnerable to self-reporting bias
Social Desirability Bias
Tendency to reply in a way that seems more socially acceptable (response bias)
Acquiescence Bias
Tendency to answer “yes” to question by default (response bias)
Representativeness
Idea that a sample should accurately reflect the population it’s taken from
Biological Approaches
Mechanistic processes that lead to behavior
Psychological Approaches
More interested in kinds of behavior that an individual may exhibit (normative/abnormal, positive/negative). Studied through observations of behavior and controlled experiments.
Sociological Approaches
Focus on the behavior, organization, and feelings of groups
How do genetics influence behavior?
Genetics influence behavior, most notably in the form of instinctual (hard-wired) behavior
What do adaptive traits contribute to?
Adaptive traits contribute to the fitness (mean lifetime reproduction) of an organism
What are some instinctual reflexes that newborns exhibit?
Newborns have rooting, sucking, palmar grasp, Moro, and Babinski reflexes
First year of human life
Caregiver focus, stranger anxiety at 7-8 months
1-2 years of human life
Complex motor behavior, identity formation, egocentrism
Critical Periods
Experiences can imprint on a child for life (especially when they are young)
Puberty/Adolescence
Adulthood, aging (w/ telomere degradation)
How does the endocrine system regulate behavior?
The endocrine system regulates both behavior and physiology by secreting hormones into the bloodstream
Hypothalamus
Major regulatory center, releases tropic hormones CRF, TRH, GnRH to the anterior pituitary
Anterior Pituitary
Releases ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, GH
Posterior Pituitary
Contains neurons that release ADH and oxytocin
What are the endocrine glands?
Hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, panceas, adrenal cortex/medulla, gonads (ovaries/testes)
Oxytocin
Important hormone for bonding, empathy, and trust; Uterine contractions, and milk letdown reflex during lactation
Prolactin
Important hormone for lactation; implicated in postpartum depression
Leptin (satisfied), ghrelin (hungry), neuropeptide Y (appetite)
Hormones that regulate hunger
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
Acute stress response (hormones)
Cortisol
Variety of cardiovascular, metabolic, immunologic, and homeostatic function (hormone)
Thyroid Hormone
Metabolic rate, neural development
Nervous system
Faster response to environmental stimuli
Reflexes
Completely autonomic responses
Afferent Neurons
Sensory neurons; Send signals to the CNS
Efferent Neurons
Motor neurons; send signals from the CNS to an effector
Somatic Motor Neurons
Synapse at neuromuscular junctions and cause muscle contraction through the release of acetylcholine
Describe neuron receptors
Receptors on the dendrites of neurons response to neurotransmitters. One receptor type is usually responsive to only one neurotransmitter.
Resting membrane potential
-70 mV (charge difference across the membrane)
Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
- Excitatory neurotransmitters INCREASE resting membrane potential, making it less negative (depolarization)
- Inhibitory neurotransmitters DECREASE this potential, making it more negative (hyper-polarization)
What are the types of chemicals that can interact with receptors?
Chemicals interacting with receptors are agonists (stimulate response) or antagonists (block receptor)
Peripheral Nervous System
All nerves except brain and spinal cord (somatic and autonomic nervous systems)
Autonomic Nervous System
(peripheral) Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
Part of peripheral nervous system that controls muscle movement
Enteric Nervous Sytem
Branch of the nervous system involved with regulation of the gastrointestinal tract
Central Nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Hindbrain
Cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata
Midbrain
Substantia nigra, superior and inferior colliculi
Brainstem
Midbrain, medula oblongata, and pons
Forebrain
Largest region, divided into diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, and pineal gland) and telencephalon
Spine
Cervical (C1-C7), thoracic (T1-T12), lumbar (L1-L5), sacral (S1-S5; fused in adults), coccyx (tailbone); nerves innervating specific body areas originate at distinct levels of the spine
Brain Imaging Techniques
- Electroencephalograms (EEG) measure activity through electrodes as wave forms
- Computed Tomography (CT) = X-rays taken in 360° and assembled in 2D slices to show a 3D image
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and is especially useful for soft tissues
- Functional MRI (fMRI) measures perfusion of brain regions
- Positron emission tomography (PET) uses radio-labeled glucose to measure metabolic activity
What pathway does sensory input follow?
Stimulus –> Transduction (stimulus converted to action potential) –> sensation –> perception
What kind of input do sensory receptors give?
Sensory receptors give information on location, type/modality, intensity, and duration of input
What different types of receptors are there?
Photoreceptors (light); mechanoreceptors (sound, acceleration, touch); chemoreceptors (taste. smell); baroreceptors (pressure); proprioceptors (body position); nocireceptors (pain); osmoceptors (concentration)
Absolute Threshold
Minimum signal to be detected (not the same as threshold of conscious perception)
Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)
Amount stimulus must change to be noticed
Signal Detection Theory
Ability to pick up tru/false presence/absence of stimulus from environment
Top-Down vs. Bottom-up Processing
Using expectations to structure perception vs. taking in info first
Gestalt Laws
Principles describing how we integrate stimuli into consciously perceived shapes
Visible LIght
EM waves with wavelengths between 380nm and 740nm (violet to red)
Rods
Rods contain rhodopsin and are extremely sensitive to light, but do not detect color. They help us see in low light conditions, such as at night. Rods need to undergo dark adaption when moving from light to dark.
Cones
Found in the macula and the fovea, near the center of the visual field and in the back of the eye. They are responsible for seeing color and seeing detail (acuity)
- 3 different types: short (blue, S), medium (green, M), and long (red, L)
Cornea
A small, curved and translucent portion of the epithelium that light must pass through to enter eye
Lens
Boundary between anterior and posterior chambers; changing its shape changes focus of light entering the eye (flattening = helps see farther-away objects, rounding = helps see nearer objects)
Iris
Structure in front of lens that controls amount of light entering (dilation = widening due to sympathetic NS stimulation or low light; constriction = narrowing due to parasympathetic stimulation or bright light)
Retina
Innermost layer of eye
Sclera
Outermost layer of eye (white color of the eye)
Choroid
Vascular structure between retina and sclera
Basic Pathway of LIght
Outside > Cornea > anterior chamber > lens > posterior chamber > retina (sensing)
Phototransduction
Photo transduction starts in the retina (rods and cones). Retina has three vertical layers: photoreceptors (rods/cones), bipolar cells (connect to ganglion cells), ganglion cells (comprise optic nerve); Horizontal cells laterally connect photoreceptors and bipolar cells, amacrine cells laterally connect bipolar and ganglion cells
Visual Input
Sent towards visual cortex by optic nerve; at optic chiasm, nasal sides of optic nerve cross over so that right visual field –> right visual cortex and vice versa
What happens in the visual input pathway after the optic chiasm?
After chiasm, optic pathway synapses at lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN; contains magnocellular neurons [motion] and parvocellular neurons [detail]), and sends input to visual cortex and superior colliculi
Motion Parallax
Monocular depth clue based on relative motion of near vs. far objects
Feature Detection
Ability to detect motion, color, shape, timing, and size
Parallel Processing
Integrate simultaneous input
Serial Processing
Sort incoming input to find specific info
What kind of waves are detected by hair cells in ear?
Sound waves (longitudinal)
Outer Ear
Catches sound waves with shape
Middle Ear
Amplifies sound waves (malleus, incus, stapes)
Inner Ear
turns vibrations into action potential via endolymph-bathed hair cells with stereocilia detectors
Organ of Corti
In inner ear; hosts endolymph-bathed hair cells on basilar membrane
Left Temporal Lobe
Speech
Right Temporal Lobe
Sounds and Music
Somatosensation
All sensation about and within the body
Two-Point Threshold
Minimum distance two simultaneously-stimulated points must be apart to be perceived as two points of stimulation, not one
Physiological Zero
The temperature we perceive as neither hot nor cold. It is approximately 85°-90°F (29°-32°C)
Gate Theory of Pain
We can turn certain signals on or off depending on the overall pattern of sensory input
Taste
Processed in the taste center of the thalamus, then sent to the gustatory cortex
Smells
First processed in the olfactory bulb, then passed along olfactory tract to limbic system and elsewhere
Consciousness
Consciousness is awareness of our surroundings and ourselves and can be split into at least four broad states: alertness, daydreaming, drowsiness, and sleep
Sleep Stages
Alertness (beta waves), drowsiness (alpha waves), stage 1 (theta waves, light sleep), stage 2 (theta waves, sleep spindles and K-complexes, memory consolidation), stage 3 (delta waves, deep sleep/slow-wave sleep, memory processing), REM sleep (rapid eye movement, dreaming, irregular respiration and heart rate).
Sleep Cycles
Repeat throughout the night; About 90 mins in adults
Circadian Rhythm
The body’s 24-hour clock is called the circadian rhythm and is regulated by melatonin and cortisol
Dyssomnias
Sleep-wake disorders are called dyssomnias and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
Parasomnias
Sleep disorders that cause abnormal behaviors while sleeping are called parasomnias and include sleepwalking (somnabulism), night terrors, and nightmares
Theories about the Content of Dreams
Freud’s Idea of manifest and latent content of dreams and wish fulfillment; the activation-synthesis model; problem-solving theory; cognitive theory
Addiction
A pattern of compulsive behavior despite negative consequences
Dependence
The onset of withdrawal symptoms on cessation
Tolerance
Requiring larger doses to experience an effect
Mesolimbic Pathway
The mesolimbic pathway is the reward pathway often active in addiction. It consists of the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, olfactory tubule, and medial forebrain bundle
Stimulants
Stimulants increase CNS activity and include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and MDM
MDMA
MDMA increases energy and empathy and works by stimulating the release of seratonin, dopamine, and epinephrine
Amphetamines
Amphetamines increase energy and reduce appetite
Cocaine
Works by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
Depressents
Decrease CNS activity and include alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates
Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates
Both are most commonly used to treat anxiety, and are very dangerous in combination with alcohol
Korsakoff Syndrome
Often caused by chronic alcohol use. Its symptoms include memory loss, confusion, and confabulation
Opioids
Opioids are a group defined as opioid-receptor agonists and include morphine, heroine, codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and fentanyl; Are effective for pain relief, but tend to be highly addictive and also constitute a major health crisis in the United States
Hallucinogens
Distort perceptions and enhance sensory experiences. This group includes LSD, ketamine, psilocybin, and PCP
Marijuana
Marijuana is usually not put into strictly any one category. It acts on endocannabinoid receptors that has a wide range of effects and medical uses.
Selective Attention
Ability to pay attention to just a few things in our environment and pay less or no attention to others
Broadbent Filter Model
Unimportant and background information is filtered out of the sensory buffer and lost
Treismann Attenuation Model
Unimportant and background information is attenuated, but if something important happens, we can notice. Explains cocktail party effect
Inattentional Blindness
We miss things if we’re focusing elsewhere; invisible gorilla experiment
Change Blindness
We miss things that have gradually or subtly changed in our environment
Multitasking
Multitasking may happen sequentially or in parallel; Often impairs performance in both tasks
Simultaneous Attention
Processing two tasks at the same time to multitask
Sequential Attention
Switching between tasks rapidly to multitask
Allport’s Module Resource Theory
Attention isn’t regulated by a single center, but divided among modules in the brain according to task. Multitasking using different modules works well, but using similar ones does not.
Attention-Deficity/hyperactivity disorder
Inattentive type, hyperactive impulsive type, and combined type
Information Processing Model
Information processing model treats the brain somewhat like a computer, handling input and creating output
Behaviorism
Behaviorism focuses on measurable external outcomes with no attempt to directly determine internal states
Jean Piaget introduced the idea of cognitive stages
Sensorimotor (birth to two years): Lacking object permanence, circular reactions, stranger anxiety
Preoperational (two to seven years): Symbolic thought, egocentrism, lack of conservation
Concrete Operational (seven to eleven years): Understand conservation, logical reasoning
Formal Operational (adolescence to adulthood): Abstract logic, handle hypotheticals, reason abstractly
Fluid Intelligence
Problem-solving skills
Crystalized Intelligence
Knowledge and its application.
Cognitive Performance Declines with Age
Dementia is defined as severe cognitive decline. It is often caused by Alzheimer’s disease, but can have a multitude of causes
Down Syndrome
Caused by trisomy 21 (having three copies of chromosome 21 instead of two); Impacts cognitive functioning
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Both impact cognitive functioning
Problem-Solving Strategies
Trial and error, algorithms, deductive and inductive reasoning, and analogies
Mental Set
Framework for solving a problem
Functional Fixedness
Seeing only a prescribed set of uses for a particular object or property
Belief Perseverance
People’s tendency to maintain beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence
Overconfidence and Underconfidence
Can both get in the way of problem solving
Biases and Heuristics
Patterns used to quickly make judgments, heuristics used to problem solve
Confirmation Bias
Disregarding of evidence contrary to one’s beliefs, favorable interpretation of ambiguous evidence, and selective recall of only supporting evidence
Hindsight Bias
Phenomenon that all events in retrospect seem significantly more predictable than they were at the time, and the actual outcome appears as the only likely outcome
Causation Bias
Tendency to infer cause-and-effect to almost any set of events occurring in close proximity or that we expect to be causally related
Representativeness Heuristic
Using prototypical categories to misestimate the likelihood of a certain behavior, outcome, or property
Availability Heuristic
Believing that events that immediately come to mind are more likely (medical students disease)
Components of Language, from lowest to highest level
Phonetics (direct sounds that we produce), syntax (phrases/sentences), semantics (literal meaning), pragmatics (real-world language use, non-literal meaning
Sign language
Sign langauges share all components of language and are full-fledged linguistic systems
Three conflicting theories of language aquisition are tested on the MCAT
(1) Learning theory of language: all language is learned behavior (environmental stimuli, conditioning)
(2) Nativist Theory of Language Acquisition: Humans have an innate, hard-wired capacity for learning language
(3) Interactionist Theory: Emphasizes interactions with the environment, without denying inborn capacity
Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)
The language we speak shapes our cognition
Linguitic Determinism (strong Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)
Language simply dictates thought
Aphasia
Impairment of the ability to communicate
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Fluent speech that doesn’t make sense; Difficulty with language comprehension. It is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in the superior temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere and is classified as both a fluent aphasia and a receptive aphasia
Broca’s Aphasia
Extreme difficulty producing language, without significant difficulties understanding spoken language. It is caused by damage to Broca’s area in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere
Conduction Aphasia
Severe difficulty repeating words and is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, a structure connecting Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas
Encoding (visual, auditory, semantic)
Transformation of sensory input into a cognitive object
Priming
Our response to subsequent stimuli based on our exposure to prior ones
Negative Priming
Prior stimulus inhibits the processing of a current one, such as in the Stroop task
Chunking, mneumonics, method of loci
Enhance learning
Memory systems can be ordered by th time spans in which the retain information
Instantaneous (sensory memory), brief (short-term memory and working memory) and life-long (long-term memory)
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Drawn on by working memory
Explicit Memory
Knowing what
Implicit Memory
Knowing How
Other kinds of memory
Flashbulb, eidetic, iconic memory
Semantic Networks of Memory
Semantic networks store memory, retrieved through spreading activation
Source Monitoring Errors
Accurate information, wrong source
Non-Associative Learning
Encompasses habituation, dishabituation, sensitization, extinction, instinctual drift, imprinting, latent learning and observational learning
Associative Learning
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus/response > conditioned stimulus/response (Pavlov’s Dogs)
Conditioned Stimulus
Previously neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus (Pavlov’s Dogs)
Operant Conditioning
Frequency of behavior is increased by ereinforcement and decreased by punishment
Positive Operant Conditioning
Addition of a stimulus
Negative Operant Conditioning
Removal of a stimulus
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous, fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval
Shaping
Rewarding progressive approximations of a target behavior
Capturing
Waiting around for a behavior to happen to reward
Latent Learning
Background learning that happens and information gathered even when no rewards are present
Extinction
The decrease in response over time in the absence of reinforcement, while instinctive drift refers to reversion to instinctive behavior
Observational Learning
Was famously studied in Alfred Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
Imitation
A subtype of observational learning
Mirror Neurons
Mirror Neurons are the putative biological basis of observational learning
Jean Piaget
Introduced the idea of cognitive stages
Ekman’s Universal Emotions
Fear, anger, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise, contempt (added to the model later)
Limbic System
Associated with emotion (especially amygdala [emotion processing] and hypothalamus [connects the CNS with the endocrine system])
Components of Emotion
Emotions have cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components
Major Theories of Emotion
James-Lange: Stiumulus > physiological response > emotion
Schachter-Singer: Adds contextual appraisal to James-Lange
Cannon-Bard: Stimulus > simultaneous physiolocial and cognitive responses > emotion/behavior
Lazarus: Stimulus > labeling > physiological response > emotion
Stressors
Independent (we have no control over) vs. Dependent (we have control over)
Conflicts
Avoidance-Avoidance (two bad things), approach-approach (two good things), Approach-avoidance (one thing w/ pros and cons), double approach-avoidance (two things w/ pros and cons)
Different Kinds of Stress
Eutress: Good
Neustruss: Neutral
Distress: Bad
General Adaptation Syndrome
Three stages of stress adaptation: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Learned Helplessness
Repeated Exposure to unavoidable stressors causes learned helplessness
Motivation
Drives our actions. It can either be extrinsic or intrinsic
Instincts
Fixed behavioral patterns
Drive Reduction Theory
We’re motivated to return our body to homeostasis; Disturbances of homeostasis produce signals called drives that we seek to reduce
Primary Drives vs. Secondary Drives
Primary drives are physiological and innate, while secondary drives are learned
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological needs must be satisfied first, followed by safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization
Expectancy Value Theory
Motivation will be highest if you expect to succeed and if goal is worth it
Self-Determination Theory
Focuses on competence, autonomy, and relatedness for intrinsic motivation.
Opponent-Process Theory
After an initial intense reaction, the opposite reaction is triggered and over time, can dominant
Attitudes have ABC components
Affective, behavioral, and cognitive
Thomas Theorem
If people define situations as real, they have real consequences
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
How we resolve conflicts when beliefs/knowledge don’t align with our actions
Elaboration Liklihood Model
Central-route persuasion (relies on reason) is effective for lasting change, but more difficult to achieve; Peripheral-Route persuasion relies on emotional appeal but creates superficial change
Erikson’s Life Stages
Trust vs. Mistrust (up to age 1), autonomy vs. Shame/doubt (ages 1-3), initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6), industry vs. inferiority (6-12), identity vs. role confusion (ages 12-20), intimacy vs. isolation (ages 20-40), generativity vs. stagnation (ages 40-65), integrity vs. despair (ages 65+)
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Pre-conventional Morality (obedience, then self-interest), conventional morality (conformity, then law and order) and post-conventional morality (social contract, then universal human ethics)
Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality
id (most basic wants, operates on pleasure principle, fantasies called wish-fulfillment), ego (reality principle, navigates wants of id through real world), and superego (who we think we should be, our ego-ideal)
Freudian Defense Mechanisms
Regression: A return to an earlier developmental stage
Reaction Formation: An unacceptable desire turned into its opposite
Displacement: Shifting impulses from an unacceptable to an acceptable target
Sublimation: Redirection of strong unacceptable desires ino a more appropriate behavior
Projection: Placing one’s own uncomfortable feelings onto other people
Rationalization: Coming up with excuses for feelings
Suppression: Consciously disregarding uncomfortable feelings
Repression: Unconsciously disregarding uncomfortable feelings
Freud’s Psychosexual Perspective on Human Development posits that humans go through 5 stages
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Failure to successfully navigate stages can cause lasting compelxes
Carl Jung
Collecting unconscious containing archetypes such as the persona, shadow, and anima or animus
Behaviorism
Concerned with only observing overt behaviors, not speculating about internal states
Humanistic Psychology
Introduced the importance of empathy, the idea of unconditional positive regard, and a focus on self-actualization
Trait Theories of Personalities
Big 5 Perosnality traits and the PEN model divide personalities into a taxonomy of traits
Type Theories
Such as astrology or the Myers-Briggs Type inventory focus on discrete types. Generally considered to be not very reliable
Social Cognitive Perspective
Spawned the idea of reciprocal determinism, the idea that our relationships shape our behavior and our behavior shapes our relationships
Biological Perspectives of personality
Focus on genetic factors
Biomedical vs. Biopsychosocial Approaches
Biomedical approaches describe disease as purely biological, while biopsychosocial approaches see it as a multi-factorial phenomenon; the DSM-5 is the current standard for classification of mental disorders
Depressive Disorders
- Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is defined by at least one two-week episode of major depression
- Dysthymia (also known as persistent depressive disorder) is less severe than MDD but lasts at least 2 years
- Seasonal Affective Disorder is depression with a regular seasonal onset
Bipolar Disorders
- Bipolar I is characterized by manic episodes and does not require dpressive episodes to be diagnosed
- Bipolar II is characterized by at least one major depressive episode and one or more episodes of hypomania
- Cyclothymic disorder also involves hypomania, but usually less intense depression
Anxiety Disorders
- Generalized anxiety disorder involves extremely high levles of stress for everyday, routine aspects of life
- Social anxiety disorder is the onset of intense feelings of stress in social situations
- Illness Anxiety disorder is excessive concern about medical conditions in the absence of physical symptoms
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
The presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) that can only be quieted temporarily by compulsions (ritualistic behavior)
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Obsessive focus on a perceived flaw in appearance (negligible or not present)
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Caused by intense acute and/or chronic trauma; intrusive recollections (not necessarily visual), avoidance of stimuli related to trauma, negative changes in mood and cognitions related to the traumatic event and altered patterns of reactivity and arousal (symptoms >1 month)
Somatic Disorders
- Somatic symptom disorder is excessive preoccupation with a physical symptom
- Conversion Disorder: impaired voluntary motor/sensory function with no apparent biological cause
Dissociative Disorder
- Dissociative Identity Disorder: Different personalties at different times within the same individual
- Dissociative Amnesia: retrograde amnesia in which people lose episodic memories of their own lives
Depersonlization/Derealization Disorder
Disconnection from own existence, as if observing oneself
Schizophrenia
- Prodromal Phase: Period of poor adjustment before acute illness
- Positive symptoms (added: hallucinations and delusions) vs. negative symptoms (subtracted: flattening affect, lethargy, etc.). Catatonia is also common.
- Biological cause of schizophrenia is thought to be primarily excess dopamine production. Schizophrenia is also highly heritable, with a major genetic component and a high concordance rate
- Treatment of schizophrenia usually involves antipsychotics, neuroleptics, and therapy-based approaches
Personality Disorders
Pervasive Maladaptive behavior; ego-syntonic (patients don’t perceive the problem)
Cluster A: Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders
Cluster B: Antisocial, narcissistic, histrionic, and borderline personality disorders
Cluster C: Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive disorders
Biological Causes of Parkinson’s Disease
Motor Tremors, etc., caused by cell death in the substantia nigra nad reduced dopamine expression; can be induced by dopamine antagonists
Biological Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease
Form of dementia with emotional disturbances; correlated with beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein fibrillary tangles
Biological Causes of Depression
Serotonin and dopamine deficiencies are currently thought to be the main cause of depression; selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) increase serotonin levels in the brain
How do Groups affect individual behavior?
Groups affect individual behavior through social facilitation, social loafing, and the bystander effect
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Psychological arousal modulates performance. Optimal arousal = optimal performance
Deindividualization
Loss of self-awareness in groups; low-perceived responsibility
Group Polarization
A group’s opinions becoming more extreme than those of their individual members, due to group dynamics such as informative influence and normative influence
Groupthink
Theory of why groups sometimes make very bad decisions without considering outside ideas
- 8 Factors: illusion of invulnerability, illusion of morality, illusion of unanimity, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters, collective rationalization, excessive stereotyping and mind guards
Conformity
Lining up out behaviors or beliefs with the perspective of others
Internalization (as a subtype of conformity)
Completely changing our beliefs to obtain conformity
Compliance (as a subtype of conformity)
Adjusting our behavior, but internall dissenting
Identification (as a subtype of conformity)
Middle ground focused on maintating relationships
Soloman Asch Experiment
People will conform to group rpessure even when group is very wrong (line length experiment
Compliance
Obeying requests from someone who has no power to enforce them. Techniques include the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique, and the low-ball technique
Obedience
Obeying request from someone who as the power to enforce them (Stanford prison & milgram)
Social Control (through sanctions)
How all our norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated
Formal Norms
Encoded in laws or regulations and have specific penalites for violating them
Informal Norms
Not written down, unliekly to have fixed penalties for violations (folkways, mores, taboos)
Anomie
Mismatch between stated norms and the norms an individual responds to; often precedes the breakdown of traditional systems of moral regulation
Deviance
Not following norms
Differential Association Theory
Learned by association
Labeling Approach
Deviance increases in frequency in response to being labeled deviant
Primary Deviance
Acts committed before receiving the label
Secondary Deviance
Acts of deviance after receiving the label
Fads
Behaviors with intense, brief popularity
Mass Hysteria
Irrational, overblown response to a perceived threat. Sometimes the effects of the mass hysteria are more harmful than those of the threat
Ways that we explain peoples behavior
In explaining people’s behavior, we make dispositional attributions (inherent factors) and situational attributions (external/temporary factors)
- Consistency and distinctiveness cues influence which attribution to use, as well as cultural influences (collectivistic - favors situational, individualistic - favors dispositional)
Attributions
The process by which individuals explain the cause of behavior and events
Fundamental Attribution Error
Making preferentially dispositional attributions of other people
Actor-observer bias
Dispositional attributions for others, situational attributions for ourselves
Self-Serving Bias
Making dispositional attributions for our own good outcomes, and situational attributions for out own bad outcomes
Internal and External Locus of Contorl
Focus on own actions (internal) or circumstances (external) to explain life outcomes
Halo Effect
Perceptions of success/attractiveness spill over into our evaluations of people in other domains
Just-World Hypothesis
Cognitive error of assuming good outcomes occur in good people and vice versa
Prejudice
Feelings and attitudes towards groups, people. or objects
Stereotypes
Contain specific content (paternalistic, admiration, contemptuous, and envious)
Discrimination
Actions taken to treat somebody differently based on their group or demogrpahic category membership and/or existing prejudices. Can be individual discrimination or institutional discrimination
Self Fulfilling Prophecies
Ways in which we alter or sabotage our behavior in response to stereotypes
Stereotype Threat and Stereotype Boost
Refers to how even subconscious stereotypes can alter performanceWh
Stigmatized
When society strongly disapproves of something, it is said to be stigmatized or have stigma
Ethnocentrism
Viewing all phenomena through one’s own cultural lens
Cultural Relativism
Taking the perspective of different cultures with different normative behaviors from one’s own
Verbal Communication
Literal words that we speak, write, sign, text or otherwise use
Nonverbal Communication
Covers everything that is not verbal communication and is a fundamental form of communication for both humans and animals
Self-Presentation Strategies
Self-disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and altercasting
Dramaturgical approach to self-presentation or impression management
States that we maintain both a front-stage self and a back-stage self
Attraction
Influenced by physical attractiveness, proximity, and similarity
Aggression
Often found in hierarchical environments and regulated or restrained by the prefrontal cortex
Attachment
Bond between children and their caregivers
Secure Attachment
Only mild distress when caregiver leaves, quickly self-regulating and happy on regurn
Ambivalent Attachment
Intense distress when caregiver leaves, followed by mixed signals on return
Avoidant Attachement
No apparent concern for caregiver leaving or returning, thought to stem from neglectful relationships
Disoriented/Disorganized Attachment
Hesitant, contradictory, and confused behavior both on the caregivers departure and return; often signals abuse
Altruism
Helping other people at some cost to oneself. Altruism may help genetically similar organisms, such as kin, survive
Inclusive Fitness
The idea that natural selection can act on groups
Social Support
Emotional support, informational support, material support, or companionship support
Mating Behavior
The description of mate selection in a species and believed to often be non-random
Fisherian Selection
Preference for physical traits or behaviors that have no use besides attracting mates, such as peacock feathers
Game Theory
Simulating games where all players are acting on incomplete information to make choices that affect one another. This has been used to model ecological interactions (prisoners dilemma)
Identity
Can refer to both personal identity and social identity
Demographic Identity
Includes race, ethnicity, and nationality
Gender Identity
Contains both sex and gender in this category
Gender
A social construct by which we identify ourselves
Sex
Refers to biological categories (how you were born)
Sexual Orientation
Describes attraction to sexual partners and includes homosexuality, bisexuality, heterosexuality, asexuality, and pansexuality
Identity Formation
Mediated by social factors
Socioeconomic class and religion are also categories of identity
George Herbert Mead
Expanded the use of the term looking-glass self to describe the process by which we build conceptions of ourselves by what is reflected back at us about our behavior from others.
Integrating this feedback into our perception of self is called internalization
Role-Playing or Role-Taking
Putting oneself in the role of others, while impression management describes how we seek to control how others see us
Self-Concept
In broad terms, our perception of ourselves. This is made up of several self-schemas, which are traits we ascribe to ourselves
Locus of Control
Whether a person thinks thier actions and qualities dictate outcomes (internal), or whether their circumstances do (external)
Self-Efficacy
The degree to which people perceive themselves as having control over their situation and behavior
Social Behavior
All human interactions are affected by social behavior
Status
Any social category used to identify people
Achieved Status
A person had to work to attain
Ascribed Status
One that is thrust upon an individual
Master Status
Overshadows other statuses a person holds
Roles
Expectations that come with a certain status
Role Strain
Competing demands within a role
Role Conflict
Competing demands between roles
Role Exit
Process of disengaging from a role
Role Engulfment
A role dominates someone’s life
Primary Groups
Long-lasting interactions with deep bonds
Secondary Groups
Short lasting interactions and superficial bonds
Peer Groups
Self-selected and usually consist of people who are largely similar
Family Groups
Genetic or non-genetic relationships (such as partnerships, marriage, or adoption).
In Groups
We identify ourselves as members, while out-groups are ones we do not belong to
Social Networks
Include all connections and relationships a person has, regardless of type
Formal Organizations
Defined rules for entering and exiting, usually have hierarchies, and willl continue to exist independent of any member, even all current members
Different Types of Organizations
Coercive (must join)
Normative (shared ideals/goals)
Utilitarian (rewards/money)
Bureaucracies
A particular kind of structured organzation
Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy
Hierarchical structure, well-defined roles, responsibilities and chains of command, organized by specialization, and merit-based recruitment, employment, and promotion
Iron Law of Oligarchy
Decision-making will be taken over by a few people
McDonaldization
Focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control
Microsociology and Macrosociology
Small vs. Large scale sociology
Functionalism (Durkheim)
Components of society all perform a function, work together as a whole
Manifest Functions
Intended
Latent Functions
Hidden or unintended
Dysfunctions
Harmful
Conflict Theory (Marx)
Social groups compete for resources. Focus is on power differences and social inequality
Symbolic Interactionism
Interactions using shared symbols (things we collectively ascribe meaning to)
Rational Choice Theory
People choose actions to achieve preferences based on the pros and cons of each choice
Social Exchange Theory
Social Interactions as exchanges with costs and benefits
Feminist Theory
Understanding and remedying gender injustices
Hidden Curriculum
Habits, values, and norms imparted without being an explicit part of the curriculum
Segregation
Separation and unequal distribution of people by race, ethnicity, or otehr demographic factors
Stratification
Division of society into layers of socioeconomic status
Kinship
Descent (shared ancestry) vs. Affinity
Primary kin
Related or very closely bonded
Secondary Kin
Primary kin of primary kin
Tertiary Kin
Secondary kin of primary kin or primary kin of secondary kin
Religiosity
The measure of how religious a person considers themselves to be
Religious Organizations
Chruches, denominations, sects, and cults (charismatic leader with tight control
Secularization
Less belief in religion and its institutions
Fundamentalism
Uncompromising literalism
Government Forms
Monarchy, authoritarianism, and democracy
Economic Systems
Capitalism, socialism, and communism
Medicalization
Social construct of illness (addiction as disease vs. moral failure)
The sick role
Rights and responsibilites granted to a sick individual
Paternalism
Physicians not letting patients make thir own decisions or deliberatley underinforming them
Modern Paradigm of Medical Ethics
Beneficence (acting in a patient’s best interest)
Nonmaleficience (doing no harm)
Patient Autonomy (patients have the right to make their own medical decisions)
Justice (duty to provide equal care to all)
Illness Experience
The illness as a social construct from the afflicted individual’s perspective
Epidemiology
Interested in the patterns of illness in a population
Social Epidemiology
Focuses on how social factors contribute to illness and health
Material Culture
Physical artifacts
Symbolic Culture
Everything else (beliefs, values, rituals, symbols)
Subcultures
Groups of people within a larger cultural framework with differing practices, norms, or values
Mass Media
Radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and the internet. Broad diffusion of messages.
Popular Culture
Mass media allows centralization and standardization of culture
Culture Lag
Delay between changes (e.g. technologies) happening and cultural integration
Culture Shock
Disorienting Experience of immersion in a new culture
Assimilation
Integration into the redominant culture
Multiculturalism
Preservation of cultures
Cultural Transmission
Cultural elements transferred over time
Cultural Diffusion
Transfer between different cultures
Key Demographic Categories
Age (absolute years and cohorts/generations), sex, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, immigration status
Important Generations
G.I. Generation or the Greatest Generation: born 1900 to 1920
Silent Generation: Born 1925-1945
Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to mid 1960s
Generation X: Born mid 1960s to early 1980s
Millennials: Born early 1980s to mid 1990s
Generation Z: Born late 1990s to 2010
Generation Alpha: Born 2010+
Ideas Related to Race
Racialization: Imposing a racial identity
Racial Formation Theory: Use of racialization for political/social goals
Immigration Status
Citizenship, permanent residency, visas (temporary/limitations), undocumented
Demographic Transition Model
Stage 1 - High death rate, high birth rate
Stage 2 - Decreasing death rate, high birth rate
Stage 3 - Slowly decreasing death rate, decreasing birth rate
Stage 4 - low birth and death rate, stable population
Stage 5 (proposed): Low death rate, very low birth rate
Migration
Emigration (out of a country, push factors) and immigration (into a country, pull factors)
World Systems Theory
Created for understanding globalization
Core Nations
High-skill labor requiring extensive capital investment
Peripheral Nations
Lower-skilled labor and natural resources
Semi-Peripheral
In Between
Urban Decay and Urban Renewal
Economic changes to urban core areas
Gentrification: displacement, usually by economic factors, of poorer local residents as an area becomes more affluent
Class Systems
Defined largely based on income, mobility possible
Caste Systems
Hereditary Membership
Financial Capital Money
Relationship with and ability to influence situations with money
Social Capital
Social contacts and networking
Cultural Capital
Prestigious signals defined by financial stability, relationship to money, and ability to chieve tasks and influence situations with money
Class Consciousness
Awareness of class interests
False Consciousness
Adopting of goals of another class
Power
Ability to directly get things done
Prestige
Signals that appear to correlate with power
Privilege
Favorable assumptions or advantages due to features such as race, sex, and physical characteristics
Intersectionality
Experiences of an individual are more than the sum of component demographics
Absolute Poverty
Insufficient means to subsist
Relative Poverty
Poorer than the surrounding community
Marginal Poverty
Caused by a lack of stable employment
Structural Poverty
Caused and enforced by overall economic structure
Residential Segregation
Clustering of demographic groups
Social Reproduction
The passing of social status (esp. poverty/inequality) from generation to generation
Global Inequalities
Those differences between countries
Prevalence
How many people in a population have a condition at a given time
Incidence
How many individuals in a population are newly diagnosed with a condition over a given time frame
Intergenerational Mobility
The ability for successive generations to rise or fall in status or class
Intragenerational Mobility
Events within a person’s lifetime that chagne his/her status or class
Vertical Mobility
A rise or fall in income
Horizontal Mobility
Keeping the same income, but in a different occupation (including no occupation)
Meritocracy
Promotion, advancement, and success are based on an individual’s capabilities
