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psychology paper 1 memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

Short-Term Memory refers to the temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period (15-30 seconds).

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2
Q

What is the capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

The capacity of STM is around 7±2 items (Miller’s Magic Number).

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3
Q

What is the duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

Information is held in STM for about 15-30 seconds.

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4
Q

How is information encoded in Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

Information is primarily encoded acoustically (based on sound) in STM.

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5
Q

How does information get lost in Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

Information in STM is lost through decay (fading away) or displacement (new information pushing out old).

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6
Q

What is Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

Long-Term Memory is the storage system that holds information for a long period, potentially a lifetime, with virtually unlimited capacity.

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6
Q

What is the capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

The capacity of LTM is virtually unlimited.

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7
Q

What is the duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

Information can be stored in LTM for an indefinite period, ranging from hours to a lifetime.

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8
Q

How is information encoded in Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

Information is primarily encoded semantically (based on meaning) in LTM.

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9
Q

How does information get lost in Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

Information in LTM is often lost due to retrieval failure or interference, not decay.

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10
Q

Define capacity

A

Capacity refers to the amount of information that can be held in a memory store at any given time.

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11
Q

Define duration

A

Duration refers to how long information can be retained in a memory store before it is lost or forgotten.

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12
Q

Define encoding

A

Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

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13
Q

What was the aim of Baddeley’s (1966) research on STM?

A

To investigate how information is encoded in Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

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14
Q

hat were the conditions used in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

Acoustically similar words

Acoustically dissimilar words

Semantically similar words

Semantically dissimilar words

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15
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley’s (1966) research on STM encoding?

A

STM is encoded acoustically (based on sound), as participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words.

LTM is encoded semantically (based on meaning).

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16
Q

What was a limitation of Baddeley’s research?

A

The task (recalling random words) lacks ecological validity as it doesn’t reflect real-life memory use.

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17
Q

What was the aim of Bahrick’s (1975) research into LTM?

A

To investigate the duration and accuracy of Long-Term Memory (LTM) by testing people’s ability to recall school memories.

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18
Q

What was the aim of Bahrick’s (1975) research into LTM?

A

To investigate the duration and accuracy of Long-Term Memory (LTM) by testing people’s ability to recall school memories.

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19
Q

What tasks did participants perform in Bahrick’s study?

A

Photo recognition: Identifying faces from a high school yearbook.

Free recall: Recalling the names of classmates from the yearbook.

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20
Q

What were the findings of Bahrick’s (1975) study on LTM?

A

Participants could accurately recognize faces from their yearbook even after 48 years, showing the long-lasting nature of LTM.

Free recall was less accurate, but people could still remember names even after several decades.

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21
Q

What was a strength of Bahrick’s research?

A

The study used real-life memories, increasing its ecological validity.

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22
Q

What is the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?

A

The MSM is a theoretical framework explaining the flow of information through different memory stores: sensory memory, STM, and LTM.

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23
Q

What are the three main components of the Multi-Store Model?

A

Sensory Memory

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

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24
What is the capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM) according to the Multi-Store Model?
STM has a capacity of 7±2 items (Miller's Magic Number).
25
What is the capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM) according to the Multi-Store Model?
LTM has a virtually unlimited capacity.
26
What is the duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?
The duration of STM is around 15-30 seconds (Peterson & Peterson).
27
What is the duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
The duration of LTM is indefinite (can last from hours to a lifetime).
28
How is information encoded in Short-Term Memory (STM)?
Information in STM is primarily encoded acoustically (based on sound).
29
How is information encoded in Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
How is information encoded in Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
30
What are the key stages of information flow in the Multi-Store Model?
Sensory input → Sensory Memory Attention → Short-Term Memory Rehearsal → Long-Term Memory
31
What is a limitation of the Multi-Store Model of memory?
It oversimplifies memory by treating STM and LTM as separate stores, ignoring complexities such as working memory or different types of LTM.
32
What are the three types of Long-Term Memory according to Tulving?
Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory
33
What is Episodic Memory?
Memory for personal events and experiences (e.g., your first day of school). Includes time and place context.
34
What is Semantic Memory?
Memory for general knowledge and facts (e.g., knowing the capital of France).
35
What is Procedural Memory?
Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike), often retrieved without conscious effort.
36
What research supports different types of LTM?
Brain scans show different areas of the brain active for different types: Episodic: Hippocampus Semantic: Temporal lobe Procedural: Cerebellum
37
What is the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
A model of STM suggesting that STM is an active, multi-component system that temporarily holds and manipulates information.
38
What are the four components of the Working Memory Model?
Central Executive Phonological Loop Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad Episodic Buffer
39
What is the role of the Central Executive?
Directs attention and coordinates activities of the other components.
40
What is the role of the Phonological Loop?
Deals with auditory information and preserves the order of information (subdivided into the phonological store and articulatory control process).
41
What is the role of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?
Stores visual and spatial information (what things look like and where they are).
42
What is the role of the Episodic Buffer?
Integrates information from different sources into a single memory and links working memory to long-term memory.
43
What is a strength of the Working Memory Model?
Supported by dual-task studies — people can perform visual and verbal tasks at the same time, suggesting separate systems.
44
What is a limitation of the Working Memory Model?
The Central Executive is not clearly defined and might be more complex than suggested.
45
What is Interference Theory?
Forgetting occurs because two sets of information become confused.
46
What are the two types of interference?
Proactive interference: Old information disrupts new learning. Retroactive interference: New information disrupts old memories.
47
What was the aim of McGeoch and McDonald's study?
To investigate the effects of similarity between two sets of material on the accuracy of memory recall.
48
What was the procedure of McGeoch and McDonald's study?
Participants learned a list of words, then learned a second list that was either similar or dissimilar, then recalled the original list.
49
What were the findings of McGeoch and McDonald's study?
The more similar the second list was to the first, the greater the forgetting (interference was strongest with similar material).
50
What is a strength of McGeoch and McDonald's study?
Laboratory setting controlled variables, increasing internal validity.
51
Name 2 weaknesses of McGeoch and McDonald's study?
Artificial materials (word lists) reduce ecological validity. Short time frame: The tasks were done over a short period (minutes/hours) — memory interference might look very different over days, weeks, or months (lacks temporal validity).
52
What is Retrieval Failure?
Forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed because of missing cues.
53
What are two types of retrieval cues?
Context-dependent cues (external environment) State-dependent cues (internal state, e.g., mood)
54
What was the aim of Godden and Baddeley's study?
To investigate the effect of environment on recall (context-dependent forgetting).
55
What was the procedure of Godden and Baddeley's study?
Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land, then recalled them either underwater or on land.
56
What were the findings of Godden and Baddeley's study?
Recall was better when learning and recall conditions matched (e.g., learned underwater and recalled underwater).
57
What are 2 strengths of Godden and Baddeley's study?
Strong evidence for the role of external cues in memory recall. High ecological validity as it matches real world events/occurrences
58
What is a limitation of Godden and Baddeley's study?
Context effects may not be strong in real life — learning and recalling in very different environments is rare.
59
What are the two main factors that affect the accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony?
Misleading information (e.g., leading questions) Anxiety
60
What are leading questions?
Questions that suggest a certain answer due to the way they are phrased.
61
What research studied the effect of leading questions on EWT?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) — Car crash study.
62
What was the finding of Loftus and Palmer’s study?
The verb used ("smashed" vs "contacted") affected speed estimates — stronger verbs led to higher speed estimates.
63
What is post-event discussion?
When witnesses discuss an event with others, which can contaminate their memory.
64
What research investigated post-event discussion?
Gabbert et al. (2003) — participants who discussed the event were more likely to recall details they hadn't seen.
65
How can anxiety affect EWT?
High anxiety can improve memory accuracy up to a point (Yerkes-Dodson Law) — but too much anxiety can cause poor recall.
66
What is the weapon focus effect?
When a witness focuses on a weapon during a crime, causing poorer memory for other details.
67
What research supports the weapon focus effect?
Johnson and Scott (1976) — participants who saw a man with a knife had worse recall of his appearance than those who saw a man with a pen.
68
What is the Cognitive Interview?
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to improve the accuracy of their memory recall.
69
Who developed the Cognitive Interview?
Geiselman et al. (1985)
70
What are the four main techniques used in the Cognitive Interview?
Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order Change perspective
71
What does "report everything" mean in the Cognitive Interview?
Witnesses recall all details, even if they seem irrelevant, to trigger more memories.
72
What does "reinstate the context" involve?
Witnesses mentally recreate the crime scene, including environmental and emotional details, to improve recall.
73
What does "reverse the order" mean in the Cognitive Interview?
Witnesses recall events in different orders (e.g., backwards) to prevent expectations and dishonesty.
74
What does "change perspective" mean in the Cognitive Interview?
Witnesses recall the event from another person's point of view to reduce bias.
75
What is the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)?
An updated version of the Cognitive Interview focusing on building rapport and reducing anxiety to get better recall.
76
What is a strength of the Cognitive Interview?
Research shows it improves the quantity and quality of information recalled compared to standard interviews.
77
What is a limitation of the Cognitive Interview?
It is time-consuming and requires special training for police officers.
78
How does the age of the witness affect eyewitness testimony?
Children and older adults can be less reliable, especially more susceptible to leading questions and misinformation.
79
What is a strength of children's eyewitness testimony?
Children can sometimes recall more accurate memories when free recall is used (no leading questions).
80
How does the duration of the event affect eyewitness testimony?
Very short or very long events can reduce accuracy — short events provide fewer details; long stressful events can overwhelm memory.
81
What kind of duration tends to lead to better recall?
Moderate-length, clearly observable events tend to produce more accurate recall.
82
How does the time of day affect eyewitness testimony?
People tend to remember events better during the day; poor lighting at night can impair observation and memory accuracy.
83
Why might memory be worse at night?
Darkness reduces visual clarity and fatigue can affect concentration.
84
How does the time between the event and recall affect memory accuracy?
The longer the delay between witnessing an event and recalling it, the more likely memory decay or interference will occur.
85
How soon should witnesses ideally be interviewed?
As soon as possible after the event to prevent forgetting and contamination.
86
What is violent distraction and how does it affect eyewitness memory?
Witnesses focus on shocking or violent aspects (e.g., weapons), reducing memory for other important details like faces or clothes.
87
What research supports the idea of violent distraction affecting memory?
Johnson and Scott (1976) — people who saw a man with a knife (high anxiety) had worse recall of his face compared to seeing a man with a pen.

Psychology (4 decks)

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