Psychology of Language Exam 1 Flashcards
What is natural language?
The primary form of verbal communication in a human community; innate, typically emerges in early development spontaneously
All languages exhibit systematic restrictions. Explain.
Languages have rules that are both taught and tacit that instruct the speaker on how to use the language
What is tacit knowledge?
Non-explicit knowledge about something or a language; knowledge that was not directly taught, but picked up through experience
What do the following examples demonstrate?
Mice-eater vs. rats eater
Who do I wanna visit vs. who do I wanna visit me
Which marble is near the box?
That there are unspoken rules about language that one follows without thinking why. Some sentences/phrases sound wrong due to our tacit knowledge
What is prescriptive knowledge? How does it differ from tacit knowledge?
Governs everyday-use language and how one SHOULD speak; based on explicit instruction
What’s the difference between learning and instruction?
Learning can be informal (hearing others) whereas instruction is explicit lessons
Does tacit learning require learning? Does it require instruction?
Tacit learning does not require instruction, but it may require informal learning (hearing other people speak)
Does prescriptive knowledge require learning or instruction
Requires explicit instruction
Is the English plural rule tacit? Is it learned?
It’s tacit. One does not think about putting an -s at the end of certain sentences; toddlers will use it without being taught
What is the difference between productive knowledge and memorization?
Memorized knowledge is known because it was studied at an earlier date. Productive knowledge comes from understanding a set of rules, such as grammar, and thus understanding what a given phrase or thing means through the implementation of those rules
Can one fully explain our linguistic knowledge as memorization? Why?
No; as productive sentences and phrases are created all the time, one could not possibly memorize everything in a language
Knowledge of language is productive and unbounded—explain.
There are an infinite number of sentences that can be created that have never been spoken before; if something follows the rules of a language, we may understand it, which gives way to infinite possibilities
How many sentences are there in a language? Explain.
There is an infinite number because language is unbounded so an infinite number of combinations of sentences may be created
What’s the longest sentence in a sentence? Explain.
Infinite, as one may keep adding clauses
What is grammar?
A set of rules followed by a language
Define the 4 components of grammar
Phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics
Phonology
How languages organize their sounds
Morphology
The study of the form of words
Syntax
A set of rules to create sentences
Semantics
The meaning of languages
How many rules are there in English grammar?
A finite number (3500?)
What are some of the properties of mental grammar?
It is implicit, tacit, and productive
Who has grammar? Do illiterate people have grammar? Explain.
Everyone has grammar, even illiterate people; all human communities rely on tacit rules, as language exhibits certain patterns that are productively generalized to novel rules
Language has the capacity for infinite use of finite means. Explain.
Human language can generate an infinite number of possible utterances from a finite number of building blocks
Contrast the SSSM and language instinct views with respect to what allows humans to have the capacity for language
The SSSM dictates that language is passed from adults to children and that children have no innate ability for it. The language instinct argues the opposite, claiming that language is the product of an evolved universal grammar with specialized cognitive systems
What is the blank slate hypothesis?
We are born as empty slates with no knowledge of anything and all knowledge comes from experience
Explain what generic learning mechanisms are
There are no modules/domain-specific systems, the same generic principles/mechanisms apply across domains; you can use one mechanism for many different things (duct tape)
What are mental modules?
Within our brain, we have specific areas designated to doing certain things and abiding by certain principles. These modules communicate with one another but are separated. They are innate and universal
Modular and domain-general accounts both assume innateness. How do they differ?
Modular accounts assume that the language system as a whole is innate and different mechanisms “know” how to do specific things to produce language, whereas domain-general accounts assume that language and nonlinguistic abilities are innate and use various brain mechanisms differently to achieve their goals
What is universal grammar? What precisely is innate, according to this hypothesis? Is the grammar of English innate?
A set of accepted innate linguistic principles that are served by every human language. Knowledge of language is innate and there are innate restrictions on what rules are possible in human language. Specific English grammar rules are not innate (ex. plural rules)
What is the universality of language?
Every human community naturally uses language
What does the universality of language tell us about the status of language as an instinct?
All languages share some aspects of their structure, lending support to universal grammar
Consider the example of Larry: does he use language systematically?
Yes, he employs Black English Vernacular (BEV). BEV sounds different from normal English but follows similar rules, such as reduction
What are language universals?
Certain principles all natural languages follow
Semanticity
Language always follows logical rules
Arbitrariness
Word structure does not look like the word
Discreteness
There is a clear beginning and end to words
Displacement
We can talk about things that are not present
Productivity
The ability to produce and comprehend new forms that you’ve never heard before
Digital Structure
A word’s meaning is either “on” or “off” (ex. “big cheese” vs. “cheese”)
Analog Structure
A word’s meaning changes continuously with form (ex. gesture of a spiral grows larger to indicate size)
Duality of Patterning
2 distinct levels of sounds/elements: meaningless elements that can be combined into meaningful elements (words), which themselves could be combined further
Are Hocket’s principles/duality of patterning unique to humans?
Yes, some properties are found in animals/nature, but all are uniquely human
Are some of Hocket’s principles found in animal communication?
Yes (vervet monkeys, bee dance, etc.)
Which single property is not shared with animal communication?
Duality of patterning; animals only have one level of patterning, either form or meaning
Which design properties of language did the Vervet monkey calls and bee dance exhibit?
Vervet monkeys; symbols and discreteness
Bees; displacement, productivity, and patterning
Did the Diana monkeys and Swamp sparrow songs exhibit a pattern? At what level? Do they exhibit duality of patterning?
Yes; meaningful elements; no
What is universal grammar?
A set of accepted innate linguistic principles that are shared by every human (cookie cutter)
Is UG learned?
Yes, spontaneously and without formal training
How does UG constrain the variability of languages?
UG says that there are rules that hold true for ALL languages
How does UG shape language acquisition?
Children everywhere acquire language the same way and without much effort
Contrast the predictions of the language instinct and SSSM with respect to how language is acquired: what should happen if no adult language is available to the child?
The SSSM indicates that the child will have no language. The UG model indicates that the child will form one on its own
Contrast Creoole and Pidgin
Creole is an evolved form of Pidgin. Pidgin English is a structureless language that has no seet syntax or grammar. Creole was formed from Pidgin English after a generation of PE speakers used the language and naturally developed UG rules
What is Nicaraguan sign language? How did it emerge?
A language invented by deaf children in Nicaragua
Describe the difference between gestures and NSL signs
Gestures don’t have grammar or patterns
What is path of motion?
The direction of a particular movement (ex. intoo, out of, across, etc.); used in gestures
What is manner of motion?
The distinct motion described by an action (ex. running, walking, tumbling, etc.); used by signers
Describe the emergence of discrete combinatorial signs across cohorts: do combinatorial signs emerge suddenly or gradually?
Gradually, as generations evolve the grammar
Why are children more likely to inject grammar into their language? Consider the notion of a sensitive/critical period
Children are free from previous linguistic experience, which allows for new, logical development unaffected by past learning. Critical period allows for greater freedom and neural plasticity when encoding certain information
Why do new languages develop gradually? Does this fact challenge the UG hypothesis?
As generations pass, more opportunities for growth appear. Each new generation adds something or edits something in the language. This does not necessarily challenge the UG hypothesis
Compare the regenesis of “language” in man and bird
Both learn from an older model and the language becomes more refined as generations go on
Describe the emergence of song in Zebra Finches
Zebra Finches acquire their song from an adult model; without the model, the song is abnormal with lots of repetition. In the experiment, multiple generations are reared in isolation; in each generation, a male “tutor” is selected for the next generation. At first, the song is abnormal, but as each generation learns from the one before, it slowly becomes more normal.
How do home signs support the idea of a language instinct?
Children who learn language from their parents’ unstructured home signs tend to add natural structure to their own signs, indicating a natural path of development that was not provided for by the parents
Transitive Actor
Actor in a sentence in which the verb has a direct object (ex. ‘Jimmy’ in ‘Jimmy fed the dog’)
Intransitive Actor
Actor in a sentence in which the verb does not have a direct object (ex. ‘Mark’ in ‘Mark sneezed’)
Patient
The recipient of an action (ex. ‘Jane’ in ‘Beth hit Jane’)
Are home signers equally likely to produce all role players? Explain the pattern. Why is it significant?
Home signers typically omit the transitive actor and more consistently sign the transitive actor and patient. This is significant because they are not taught to do this, yet they almost always do (supports UG)
Why are certain signs more likely to be produced? Does the child’s pattern reflect the mother’s signs? The culture?
Certain signs adhere more to the rules of UG and natural language. This pattern is more likely to reflect universal grammar, not the mother or culture
What are ergative languages?
A language in which the transitive actor and the patient have the same function
Why is the similarity between home signs and ergative languages significant?
Home signs follow the design of ergative languages, supporting UG
Discuss the implications of the generic and modularity approaches with respect to the organization of the brain and its control by the genome
The generic approach says that the brain may share all of its hardware for language, that is, there is no dedicated system and language is an abstract free-floating ability in the brain. The modularity approach says that there is dedicated areas for language that are always activated and control the skill
Language functions are…
left-lateralized
Discuss the evidence of left-lateralization from healthy individuals
When asked to perform language tasks under an fMRI, results show increased blood flow to the left hemisphere
Discuss the evidence of left lateralization from split-brain patients
Split brain patients are able to consciously process language that’s viewed with the right eye (connected to LH), but cannot process language viewed with the left eye (connected to RH); it appears to be that when left hemisphere/corpus callosum is not intact, linguistic processing is incomplete
Identify the 2 major language areas
Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
Broca’s area
Involved in language production and passive syntax processing; productive functions
Wernicke’s area
Involved with the detection of familiar sounds and the processing involved with that task; receptive functions
What is fMRI?
Shows live blood flow in the brain when performing a task
What is a baseline? Why is it critical?
A control that displays normal activity and it compared to the experimental activity; without a control, it’s very difficult to prove the effectiveness of a task in activating a portion of the brain
Explain the involvement in the major language areas in syntactic processing
Broca’s: involved with reversible, passive syntaxes
Wernicke’s: involved in general movement
What is movement?
The changing of a subject’s location between phrases (ex. I helped the girl [that Mary saw at the party.] - embedded sentence needs context from the first recognizable sentence - the direct object ‘the girl’ is who Mary say at the party); transferring ‘the girl’ is movement)
How does the brain respond to movement?
Greater activation in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Explain the role of the major language areas in speech perception
Broca’s: does some work with sound discrimination; less involved with speech perception than Wernicke’s
Wernicke’s: engaged most by linguistic stimuli; associated with the understanding of spoken and written language (due to linguistic function of speech)
How is the question of the linguistic function of speech addressed by the comparison of speech and nonspeech stimuli—what were the results?
1—Participants listen to a tone repeatedly and then suddenly hear speech
2—Participants listen to a tone repeatedly and then suddenly hear nonspeech
Wernicke’s area is activated more in condition 1
How do the major language areas process spoken language? Contrast their parts in modality and modularity
These areas are specialized to the person who is using them (see PT)
Modality—the areas support the transmission and perception of language via a particular channel (e.g., speech), in a certain modality (spoken)
Modularity—the language areas play a role in the computation of language and their function is linguistic (they comprise a language module)
What is the planum temporale and what is its role in hearing people?
Part of Wernicke’s area that is engaged by familiar linguistic input
Explain the role of the planum temporale in processing sign language. What do these findings imply with respect to its role (modularity)?
PT activation is the same when signers view signs; when signers view new signs there is no activation—supports the notion that PT is for familiar language units unique to the individual
Explain the role of the planum temporale in processing sign language. What do these findings imply with respect to its role (modularity)?
PT activation is the same when signers view signs; when signers view new signs there is no activation—supports the notion that PT is for familiar language units unique to the individual
What are double dissociations?
When a given feature is affected by one disorder but not the other
What’s the difference between single and double dissociations?
Single dissociation—shows that the presence of an acquired disability affects only one area of functioning without impairing any other area of functioning
Double dissociations—involve 2 experimental manipulations which have different effects on 2 dependent variables; the lesion of brain structure A impairs function X but not Y, and the lesion of brain structure B impairs function Y but not X
What do double dissociations tell us?
Linguistic and nonlinguistic functions engage distinct mechanisms of the mind/brain
What is Broca’s aphasia?
Damage to Broca’s area that results in difficulty with speech production and fluency of speech
Describe the syntactic problems of patients with Broca’s aphasia
Difficulty with reversible passive syntax—the action of the verb is done to the subject and the transitive actor and patient can be switched (ex. ‘The boy was pushed by the girl’)
What is Wernicke’s aphasia?
Damage to Wernicke’s area that results in fluent but nonsensical speech production, and difficulties understanding language and movement; difficulty in reception/comprehension
Is the difference between the 2 forms of aphasia explained solely in terms of language reception vs. production?
No, there is some crossover
Deficits to specific linguistic computations—Broca’s aphasia: deficit to syntactic movement—Wernicke’s aphasia: difficulties in lexical access and discourse
What major language areas are implicated in sign language aphasia? What do we conclude from this?
Either can be implicated; this supports modularity
Does language ability require high intelligence?
No
What is William’s Syndrome?
A disorder involving deficits in IQ, noticeable physical abnormalities, and almost nearly spared speech/comprehension; severely affects intellect but maintains language
What is Specific Language Impairment (SLI)?
A congenital disorder involving extreme difficulties with basic speech production, grammar, and comprehension, but IQ is spared
Explain the role of Broca’s area in processing music. What are the implications?
Broca’s area detects deviances in musical sequences; raises the possibility that Broca’s area i used for other tasks—modularity is unsupported
Explain some of the complications associated with aphasia
Grammatical deficit is not always linked to Broca’s area, sometimes caused by damage to other areas—modularity is unsupported
SLI is heterogeneous—explain the problems to the language instinct hypothesis
Not everyone in the family is affected
Who is the KE family? Why are they special?
British family with a genetic language impairment—speech impairment is discovered to be due to genetic mutation, and from which the gene FOXP2, often dubbed the “language gene”, was discovered
Describe some of the linguistic and nonlinguistic abnormalities in the KE family
Difficulty controlling speech and facial muscles, forming plurals, changing tenses, understanding complex syntactic sentences, distinguishing between words and nonwords, and manipulating phonemes
What genes explain the deficits seen in the KE family?
FOXP2
Is the FOXP2 human protein fixed? Is it unique to humans?
FOXP2 is fixed in humans, but it is not unique to humans
Are the differences between FOXP2 proteins in humans and other species due to random chance?
No, it was the target of natural selection in the past ~200,000 years
When did the changes in the human FOXP2 gene emerge?
About 200,000 years ago, around the same evolutionary time we split from chimps
What are the implications of FOXP2 change in humans?
Supports natural selection of language
Is FOXP2 a language gene? Is there such a thing?
No, FOXP2 codes for other things as well; there is no such thing
Summarize the evidence for a language module
Sign language aphasia (damage in Broca’s and Wernicke’s produces aphasia in signers)
Double dissociations
Summarize the evidence against a language module
Broca’s area’s role in music
Language production deficits are not always linked to Broca’s area
