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Psychology 1001 > Psychology Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Psychology Chapter 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Memory

A
  • Memory is the way in which we record the past and later refer to it so that it may affect the present.
  • The cognitive process of Memory is split into three separate “stages”: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.
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2
Q

Memory: Encoding

A
  • In order to “remember,” one must first have been exposed to the stimulus or event and therefore must have learned.
  • Encoding is the active process of turning stimulus information (environmental information) into a form (a code) that can be stored in our memory system.
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3
Q

Memory: Storage

A
  • Storage refers to the information being held for later use.
  • The (coded) information is held in our memory system.
  • This can include short-term and long-term storage.
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4
Q

Memory: Retrieval

A
  • Retrieval refers to the active process of locating this stored information and making it accessible for conscious use.
  • Retrieval is what we usually think of as “remembering.”
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5
Q

Sensory memory - Iconic (visual) Memory

A

• A form of sensory memory.
• Holds a brief visual image of a scene that has just been perceived.
• The purpose is to maintain the stimulus long enough for it to be encoded into short-term memory.
• Sperling – asked the following questions…
– How long does Sensory Memory last?
– How much information gets into Sensory Memory?

  • The sensory memory is fading while you are trying to commit the information to short-term memory.
  • It would be easier for a “single” icon.

• The information that is being held within our Sensory Memory appears to be unprocessed.
• If the information is not processed, and is not therefore translated into our short-term memory, it only lasts for a short period of time.
– Iconic up to 0.25 seconds
– Echoic up to 1 second

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6
Q

Sperling’s Whole Report Procedure

A

• What is happening? Why are we not able to remember all of the letters?
– Are we only able to “see” the letters that we can initially “name”?
– OR, do we initially see all of the letters, but this iconic memory fades before we can apply a name to each letter?
• Sperling followed up with another test to determine which of the above is true.

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7
Q

Sensory Memory- Echoic (auditory) Memory

A
  • Another form of sensory memory.
  • Holds a brief auditory echo of a sound that has just been perceived.
  • Less than 1 second worth of “memory capacity.”
  • The purpose is to maintain the stimulus long enough for it to be encoded into short-term memory.
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8
Q

Short-Term (Working) Memory

A
  • Information from sensory memory enters short-term memory – in order to maintain information within our short-term memory, we need to engage in “rehearsal.”
  • Rehearsal is the process by which the information is maintained within short-term memory long enough for it to be translated into long-term memory.
  • In order to be able to hold a series of items (icons) in our Short-Term Memory, we need to be able to engage in rehearsal.
  • This rehearsal requires the use of our Long-Term Memory – we need to be able to name the items that are being rehearsed – therefore we need to recall the names.
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9
Q

Encoding of Information: Interaction with Long-Term Memory

A

• We engage in an active process of rehearsal (repeating the “names” of the letters) – which helps us to remember the visual stimulus.

  • What if we try a series of symbols that are not so easy to name? Can you still maintain the symbols in your short term memory?
  • Read the following list of letters, then look away and try to remember them.

• In order to maintain the letters in short-term memory, we engage in rehearsal – this involves the retrieval of the “sounds” of the letters from our long-term memory.

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10
Q

Short-Term Memory Storage Capacity (the magic number)

A
  • The storage capacity of short-term memory is markedly different from that of long-term memory.
  • One way to determine the capacity of short-term storage is to measure the memory span, the number of items an individual can recall after just one presentation.
  • The “magic number” is 7 ± 2
  • The magic number represents the limits of what we can store (on average) in our Working Memory.
  • Seven “items” (letters, numbers, words, tones) plus or minus two.
  • If we try to retain more, then we end up losing some of the information.
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11
Q

Primacy effect

A

• Primacy effect is the tendency to remember initial information.

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12
Q

Recency effect

A

• Recency effect is the tendency to recall later information.

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13
Q

The Limits of Working Memory

A

• The ability of your working memory to maintain this information (for recall) is dependent upon…
– The number of items that you are trying to retain
– Your undivided attention
– Chunking

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14
Q

Chunking

A

a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.

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15
Q

Varieties of Working Memory

A

• Some theorists believe that each of the five senses most likely has it’s own form of working memory.
– Currently, we have evidence that there is a verbal working memory and a visual working memory.

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16
Q

Working Memory - Baddeley – proposes three components of the Working Memory

A

Central Executive , Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad

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17
Q

How Short is Short-Term Memory?

A
  • Speed of presentation matters less (decay)
  • The number of items between the “cue” and the target affects recall
  • Indicating that new information displaces old information in working memory
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18
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

• Information in Long-Term Memory is relatively stable.

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19
Q

Consolidation

A

is the process by which information in short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory.

  • Short-Term Memory – a temporary pattern of neural activity encoding the information received from the sense organs.
  • Information in STM is rehearsed, thereby perpetuating the neural activity.
  • With enough rehearsal, the neural activity causes structural changes in the brain (the information is “consolidated” in the brain).
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20
Q

Rehearsal & LTM

A

• Even with rehearsal, not all STMs become LTMs
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal

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21
Q

Rehearsal & LTM - Maintenance rehearsal

A

rote repetition (repeating without understanding)

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22
Q

Rehearsal & LTM - Elaborative rehearsal

A

forming associations between new material and old material recalled from LTM (i.e. Deep Processing)

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23
Q

Levels of Processing

A

Shallow Processing, Deep Processing

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24
Q

Levels of Processing - Shallow Processing

A

Analysis of surface features lead to lower number of words recalled than did

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25
Q

Levels of Processing - Deep Processing:

A

: analysis of semantic features (meaning)

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26
Q

Levels of Processing - Craik & Tulving (1975)

A
  • Testing the effectiveness of elaboration on memory
  • Participants read a series of sentences (one at a time) and were then given a word (flashed on a screen) – the task was to determine if the word made sense within the sentence.
  • Participants were NOT told that this was a memory study, hence the participants were not aware that they needed to remember any of these words.
  • After the sentence task, participants were then asked to try and recall the words.
  • Recall was better for words that had fit into a more complex sentence than for words that had fit into a simple sentence.
  • Demonstrates that memory is more effectively established if the memory is elaborated upon (deep processing).
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27
Q

Long-Term Memory - Explicit or Declarative Memory

A

• Is an intentional, or conscious use of memory, we are intentionally trying to remember something
• Includes
– Episodic Memory and
– Semantic Memory

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28
Q

Explicit or Declarative Memory- Episodic memory

A

memories about specific events (meaningful personal events).

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29
Q

Explicit or Declarative Memory- Semantic memory

A 
conceptual information (remembering specific facts and general ideas about various concepts).
•	Sachs (1967) demonstrated that the material we read quickly turns into semantic memory.
30
Q

Sachs (LTM)

A
  • Sachs (1967) demonstrated that the material we read quickly turns into semantic memory.
  • Examining whether memory of verbal material is episodic or semantic
  • Test – Delay (in # of syllables) between a test sentence and a comparison sentence (either with different meaning or with same meaning but different word order)
  • Recall – detecting changes
  • When no delay – participants were equally likely to detect both ‘meaning’ & ‘word-order’ changes
  • With delay – participants could still easily detect changes in meaning, but had difficulty detecting changes in word-order (when the meaning was the same)
31
Q

Long-Term Memory - Implicit or Nondeclarative Memory

A

• Un- or sub-conscious memory activation

  • – Procedural Memory
  • – Priming
  • – Classical Conditioning
32
Q

– Procedural Memory

A

remembering skills (i.e. riding a bike

33
Q

– Priming

A

an automatic process where information in memory storage is activated automatically (i.e. recalling a sensation (toast), or a Stroop task)

34
Q

– Classical Conditioning

A

– automatically learning (and remembering) relations between two stimuli

35
Q

Remembering

A

• Automatic remembering/recall: The retrieval of implicit memories is automatic.
• The Stroop Effect.
– “Reading” words consists of an automatic recall of the semantics of each word.
– Difficult to suppress this effect

36
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

are unusually vivid and detailed recollections

37
Q

LTM Disruptions: Amnesia •

A
  • Retrograde amnesia

* Anterograde amnesia

38
Q

• Retrograde amnesia

A

Loss of the ability to retrieve memories.
– Story: Football players
• Suggesting that the problem may be in the process of consolidation, rather than a failure to encode.
– Story: Motorcycle accident
• Retrograde amnesia typically “shrinks”
• Suggesting that the problem may be retrieval, rather than consolidation.

39
Q

• Anterograde amnesia

A

an inability to form new long-term memories.
• Quite often, sensory memory and short-term memory are fine, and some patients may also demonstrate the ability to learn new skills.
• Suggesting that most anterograde amnesia disrupts the formation of new explicit memories, but not the ability to form new implicit (unconscious) memories.

40
Q

Is recall always perfect?

A
  • Our legal system makes use of eyewitness testimony – but eyewitnesses are relying on their memory
  • Can we recall the details of a crime scene?
  • Can we identify the suspect from a lineup?
  • Can our recall be influenced by “leading questions?”
  • Elizabeth Loftus
  • Demonstrating the effects of “leading questions” – called the Misinformation Effect
  • Important details could be altered in the witness’s memory – inserted details and altered details.

• Retelling
– Commits people to their recollections (accurate or not), accurate retelling helps people to resist misleading suggestions
• Police Interviews
– Used to contain focused/direct questions, but these “leading questions” could create a Misinformation Effect
– Interviews are now open-ended

  • Loftus: eyewitness testimony
  • Support for the idea that episodic memory is more efficiently stored through the use of mental heuristics (storing a few important details and using our expectations of the other details of the situation to fill in the rest of the details).
41
Q

How Persuasive Is Eyewitness Testimony?

A

Elizabeth Loftus
• Murder case 1: circumstantial evidence and no eyewitness testimony
– __% voted for conviction
• Murder case 2: same evidence but with a single eyewitness
– __% voted for conviction
• Murder case 3: same evidence & witness, but now the witness is discredited (20/400 vision and not wearing glasses at the time)
– __% voted for conviction

• Both correct & incorrect witnesses are believed 80% of the time
• This holds true (62%) even when conditions are SO poor that 2/3 of witnesses had actually misidentified an innocent person
• What about witnesses who can remember all of the “fine details?”
– Generally perceived as more accurate by the jury
– Generally not as accurate

  • What happens if the eyewitness is “confident?”
  • Some people are naturally/characteristically more confident about their decisions
  • Jurors tend to believe witnesses who appear more confident in their recollections (but this is only marginally related to accuracy)
42
Q

How accurate are those eyewitnesses? -

A
  • Robert Buckhout staged an “assault” on a professor
  • 141 students were witnesses
  • Students were called in to identify the assailant from a group of 6 photographs
  • 60% chose an innocent person
43
Q

False Memories

A

• Ceci & Bruck
• Demonstrated children’s suggestibility by asking children once a week (for 10 weeks) to,
– “Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you…”
– “…Can you remember going to the hospital with the mousetrap on your finger?”
• Follow up interview: 58% of the children could produce false and often detailed stories about the fictional event
• Even when told that the story never really happened, some were completely convinced that it really did.

44
Q

Remembering and Interference (

A
  • It used to be believed that some memories were difficult to retrieve due to decay.
  • Retroactive and Proactive Interference

The average number of nonsense syllables recalled after a certain period of time asleep or awake
Being awake, we are encoding new memories that are interfering with our ability to remember the list of nonsense syllables

45
Q

• Remembering and interference- Retroactive Interference

A

new information that is more recent, interferes with our ability to recall earlier information.

46
Q

• Remembering and interference- Proactive Interference

A

ability to recall information is disrupted (same as retroactive interference) – but here, our ability to recall new information is reduced due to information that we learned previously.

47
Q

Forgetting

A

Research has shown that forgetting can be caused by defects in encoding , storage, retrieval, or some combination.

48
Q

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

A

Graphs retention and forgetting over time. Ebbginghaus’s forgetting curve shows a precipitous drop in retention during the first few hours after the nonsense syllables were memorized. Thus, he concluded that most forgetting occurs very rapidly.

49
Q

The of the tongue phenomenon

A

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach.

50
Q

retrieval cures

A

stimuli that help gain back memory.

51
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

when the conditions during encoding and retrieval were similar.

52
Q

Phonological loop

A

component of working memory. the component is at work when you use recitation to temporily remember a phone number

53
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

component of working member. permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images. This element is at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in you bedroom or map out a complicated route that you need to follow to travel somewhere.

54
Q

Central executive system

A

component of working memory. It controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed.

55
Q

Episodic buffer

A

component of working memory. a temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information and that serves an an interface between working memory and long-term emory .

56
Q

clustering

A

the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups.

57
Q

conceptual hierarchy

A

is a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items.

58
Q

Schema

A

is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or even abstracted from previous experience with the object or event

59
Q

semantic network

A

consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.

60
Q

Connectionist or Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model

A

assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks. It consists of a large network of interconnecting computing units, or nodes, that operate much like neurons. These nodes may be inactivity or they may send either excitatory or inhibitory signals to other units. PDPP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patters of activation in these networks. a piece of knowledge is represented by a particular patter of activation across an entire network.

61
Q

Interference theory

A

purposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.

62
Q

retroactive interference

A

occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information

63
Q

Decay theory

A

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

64
Q

pseudoforgetting

A

can’t forget something that we did no learn (lack of attention)

65
Q

measures of forgetting- rentention

A

refers to the proportion of material retained

66
Q

recall

A

measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues

67
Q

Recognition

A

measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options.

68
Q

repression

A

refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

69
Q

why we forget

A

ineffective encoding, decay, interference, retrieval failure, motivate forgetting

70
Q

reality monitoring

A

refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations.

71
Q

source monitoring

A

involves making attributions about the origins of memories

72
Q

a sources monitoring error

A

occurs when a memory derived from one sources is misattributed to another sources.

Psychology 1001 (4 decks)

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