Psychology- Brain Flashcards

Question

What is the hippocampus?

Answer 1

The hippocampus is a critical structure located within the temporal lobe. It plays a vital role in the formation, organisation, and retrieval of memories, particularly in converting short-term memories into long-term ones. The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation, helping individuals remember and navigate through their environment.

Answer 2

The hypothalamus is a small area in the centre of the brain. It helps produce hormones that regulate heart rate, body temperature, hunger, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Answer 3

The amygdala is a cluster of nuclei located within the temporal lobe. It is primarily involved in processing emotions, such as fear, anger, and pleasure. The amygdala helps to evaluate emotional significance and trigger appropriate responses, influencing both emotional behaviour and memory formation. It plays a key role in detecting and reacting to threats and is crucial for emotional learning and memory.

Answer 4

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of nerve cell tissue. It has a wrinkled appearance and carries out many essential functions such as memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, and sensory functions.

Answer 5

- The smallest portion of the brainstem and its most cranial structure. - Functions as a relay system, transmitting information necessary for vision and hearing. - Plays an important role in motor movement, pain, and the sleep/wake cycle.

Answer 6

Reticular formation refers to a network of neurons that regulate alertness and modify muscle movements. It extends into hindbrain and links upper and lower areas.

Answer 7

The basal ganglia are a set of brain structures that control movement and coordination. They also play a role in learning and emotions.

Answer 8

- Located at the back and base of the skull. - Includes the brainstem and the cerebellum. -Controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and balance -Coordinates movement and motor skills.

Answer 9

The cerebellum coordinates movement and regulates posture and balance. It also is involved in learning, memory and other cognitive processes.

Answer 10

A protective, fatty layer that surrounds the axons of many neurons in the nervous system. It is an insulating cover and enhances speed of electrical signal transmission between nerve cells. Crucial for proper nervous system function, and damage can lead to neurological disorders.

Answer 11

Dendrites receive signals from other neurons and conduct impulses toward the body of another neuron.

Answer 12

Motor neurons send messages to visceral muscles and/or skeletal muscles from the CNS to carry out an action or response.

Answer 13

Sensory neurons carry incoming info from sensory receptors (e.g. skin) to the CNS.

Answer 14

The synapse is the whole area, including the synaptic gap, axon terminal and dendrite of the post synaptic neuron. The synaptic gap is the empty space (structure) between each axon terminal and the post synaptic neuron.

Answer 15

- Interneurons are located in the CNS (brain AND spinal cord). - Receive and transmit messages (nerve impulses) between sensory and motor neurons. - They are the mediator because the sensory and motor neurons do not communicate directly with each other.

Answer 16

Axon terminals are the ends of axons which transmit messages to other cells via use of neurotransmitters at synapses.

Answer 17

The axon is a portion of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron typically has one axon that connects it with other neurons or with muscle or gland cells.

Answer 18

Pruning refers to the elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated/used. Enables stronger and efficient neural transmission between essential synaptic connections.

Answer 19

Synaptic plasticity refers to the specific changes that occur within the synapse, between neurons. It is influenced by nature and nurture and is a systematic process. Complex tasks create more distinct structural changes in neural pathways.

Answer 20

Rerouting refers to when a neuron establishes an alternative neural pathways to help find the most efficient pathway. Is also common when a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron seeks an active and undamaged neuron to connect with it instead to form a new connection (to restore brain functioning).

Answer 21

Adaptive plasticity refers to the brain changing in structure to enable adjustments to experiences, to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage. This compensation process of reorganisation allows a shift in connections that might alter the function of a particular area in the brain. This occurs most during learning and after injury.

Answer 22

Developmental plasticity refers to changes in the brains neural structure in response to environmental experiences and interactions during its growth and development. This happens mostly when a child's brain is developing. As we develop synapses change.

Answer 23

Sprouting is the formation of new extensions from dendrites or the axon. These new branches enable new synaptic connections. This process normally coincides with rerouting.

Answer 24

Long-Term Potentiation is the relatively permanent strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons. It occurs through repeated stimulation there is an increase of neurotransmitters being released. It is done to improve communication between presynaptic neuron and a postsynaptic neuron.

Answer 25

Occurs slowly over time as a result of internal factors. (e.g. Alzheimer's disease, stroke, dementia)

Answer 26

Occurs suddenly as a result of injury from external forces such as a blow to the head that damages the brain tissue or structures. (e.g. a concussion)

Answer 27

Long-Term Depression is a relatively permanent weakening of neural connections between pre and postsynaptic neurons that occurs gradually. It happens when neurons become less receptive to one another and therefore there is a reduced release of neurotransmitters. It helps direct energy to keep used cells healthy and/or prevent incorrect information being remembered and ensure only the important connections are strengthened.

Answer 28

Brain damage that occurs after birth that affects the functional ability of the brain's nerve cells resulting in some form impairment or dysfunction.

Answer 29

Also known as fluent aphasia, located in the left temporal lobe. If Wernicke's area is damaged the person will usually be unaware they are suffering from it. It causes rambling, meaningless strings of words (but words are pronounced fine), difficulty comprehending words whether spoken or written and a struggle when locating appropriate words from memory to express meaning.

Answer 30

Gage suffered frontal lobe damage due to a work accident involving an explosion where an iron rod entered through his lower cheek and exited through the top of his head. He suffered from severe personality changes, changes in social behaviours and temperament. The case of Gage was the first time that people observed brain injury with relation to personality.

Answer 31

Damage to Broca's area is referred to Broca's aphasia. Consequences of Broca's aphasia include slow and laboured speech, changes to muscles involved in speech production, and poor use and understanding of grammar. A person is usually aware of their condition.

Answer 32

Spatial neglect is the tendency for a person to ignore or fail to notice one side of the visual field or body. A patient is likely to behave as if one half (usually the left side) of their world simply does not exist, so they cannot turn to face one side. It is caused by damage in one half of the hemispheres (usually the right parietal lobe), and occurs most commonly after a stroke which is why it is classified as a NBTI. Most sufferers are unaware of their condition.

Answer 33

An ABI to the occipital lobe results in some loss of vision but not because of damage to the eye. It causes an inability to process the visual stimuli and difficulty recognising shapes even if the image has been registered. A person with this condition is unable to judge distance and has confusion with left and right.

Answer 34

Henri Molaison had portions of both of his temporal lobes containing the hippocampus surgically removed in order to prevent his severe seizures. This case study indicated that explicit memory is processed in the hippocampus but implicit memory is not. After the surgery Molaison could not form or store new explicit memories but could recall old memories from before the surgery.

Answer 35

Characterised by a gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons. A reduction of hippocampal volume is one of the earliest signs of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's is irreversible and fatal, the biggest risk factor is age. Older people are more likely to develop Alzheimer's, particularly older women.

Answer 36

Amyloid plaques are produced naturally. In healthy brains they are broken down naturally however patients with Alzheimer's are unable to break them down so they collect and form plaque outside of the neuron, affecting communication between neurons. When combined with the iron and copper in the body it chemically reacts similar to rusting.

Answer 37

Neurofibrillary tangles are twisted strands of tau protein found inside the dead and dying nerve cells which affects the action potential, stopping it within the neuron. They act as a twisted network in the brain which stop substances from moving around the cell, leading to the death of brain cells.

Answer 38

CTE is a progressive (gradually increasing), degenerative (worsening) and fatal brain disease associated with repeated blows to the head over a long period. characterised by cognitive, motor and affective (emotional) dysfunction

Answer 39

Disturbance of brain function but is not really considered to be a structural injury. Concussions won't show up on scans (e.g. MRI/CT). Can only be diagnosed via overt behaviour e.g. dizziness, nausea, confusion

Answer 40

Normally, tau is inside the nerve cell where it has a beneficial role. However, under abnormal circumstances, such as after trauma, when the nerve cells are damaged, the tau starts to clump up or form tangles in brain cells. Eventually these tau clumps and tangles cause the cells to become defective and lose their ability to function If enough tau builds up over time the affected parts of the brain shrink, adversely affecting the person's cognition and behaviour, and usually resulting in dementia

Answer 41

Computerised tomography (CT) combines a series of x-ray images taken from different angles to create cross-sectional images of the body. The patient may be required to take or be injected with a substance referred to as 'contrast'. This is a dye that helps to make certain structures more visible, thereby assisting with the interpretation of the images. These images can be used to locate a brain tumour, observe changes in the brain from conditions such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease or determine the degree of brain injury following an injury or stroke.

Answer 42

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a technique that uses magnetic fields to activate atoms in the brain, which then allows a computer to generate an image of the brain. This can be used to diagnose structural abnormalities in the brain. The images produced by MRI are more detailed and clearer than those produced by CT. This imaging technique is used to identify cancerous tissue, signs of a stroke or more subtle abnormalities, such as those seen in multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders.

Answer 43

fMRI works by measuring oxygen consumption in the brain with the assumption that blood is more oxygenated in active areas of the brain. An advantage is that it does not expose participants to radioactive tracers. As with PET, coloured images are produced showing areas of higher and lower activity. fMRI produces more detailed and accurate pictures than PET in rapid succession.

Answer 44

PET is a technique that provides information about brain structure and about the brain's activity and function, in full colour. The participant is typically asked to engage in some kind of activity, while images are taken of the 'live brain' at work. Beforehand patients are injected with a glucose solution containing a radioactive tracer. The amount of glucose used by areas of the brain during the task can then be recorded, as it is assumed that active neurons will have increased blood flow. PET scans use a colour code to indicate areas of high and low brain activity, which allows researchers to determine which areas of the brain are more closely aligned to certain tasks.