psychology b1

Question 1

definition of emotion

Answer 1

Emotion: A complex state of feeling that involves physiological arousal, subjective experiences, and behavioral expressions, influencing thought and action.

Question 2

definition of mood

Answer 2

Mood: The predominant emotional state or atmosphere that influences one’s perception, thoughts, and behaviors over a period.

Question 3

what is the bystander effect

Answer 3

The bystander effect: A social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in emergency situations when others are present, assuming someone else will intervene.

Question 4

definition of culture

Answer 4

Culture: The shared patterns of beliefs, values, behaviors, customs, traditions, and symbols that are transmitted within a society or group, shaping its members’ worldview and interactions. this can differenciate a group from another

Question 5

the 6 dimension of hofstede + examples

Answer 5

collectivism vs individualism (US vs USSR)
Power distance (a firm in japan)
uncertainty avoidance (different approach to problems from firms in germany or singapore)
short term vs long term (how far does a company plan in the future)
masculinity vs feminity (no idea)
indulgence vs restraint (how to deal with gratification)

Question 6

collectivism vs individualism def

Answer 6

The degree to which individuals prioritize personal goals over group harmony or vice versa.

Question 7

uncertainty avoidance def

Answer 7

The degree to which a society tolerates ambiguity, uncertainty, and risk.

Question 8

power distance def

Answer 8

The extent to which less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

Question 9

short term vs long term

Answer 9

The focus on future rewards, persistence, and thriftiness versus immediate gratification, respect for tradition, and maintaining face.

Question 10

masculinity vs feminity

Answer 10

The emphasis on assertiveness, achievement, and material success versus nurturing, relationship-building, and quality of life.

Question 11

indulgence vs restraint

Answer 11

The extent to which individuals control their desires and impulses or indulge in pleasure-seeking activities.

Question 12

milgram experiment. describe how it was conducted, why and the results

Answer 12

The milgram experiment was conducted to see why the nazis followed the orders and why many of them thought they were innocent and did nothing bad. They took a volunteer and asked them to give a shock to a person in another room. 65% of people shiocked till death even if they heard the cry of help. This is because there was an authority figure next to them giving them directives.

Question 13

Ash experiment. describe how it was conducted and what were the results

Answer 13

The Ash conformity experiment involved participants judging the length of lines. Confederates intentionally gave incorrect answers, leading many participants to conform, giving the wrong response. Results showed 75% of conformity, even when participants knew the correct answer, highlighting the influence of group pressure on individual judgment and behavior.

Question 14

moscovici experiment. describe how it was conducted and what were the results

Answer 14

The Moscovici experiment investigated minority influence. Participants were shown blue slides varying in intensity and asked to state the color. Confederates consistently labeled them green. Results revealed that some participants began to conform, also labeling the slides green. This demonstrated the power of a consistent minority to influence perception, highlighting the role of confidence and consistency in minority influence.
(the experiment worked better when the confederates were consistent with their answers)

Question 15

definition of leadership

Answer 15

Leadership: The process of influencing and inspiring others towards a common goal or vision, often involving traits such as communication, integrity, decisiveness, and the ability to motivate and guide a group or organization.

Question 16

trait theory of leadership

Answer 16

Trait theory of leadership posits that certain inherent characteristics or traits, such as intelligence, charisma, confidence, and sociability, distinguish effective leaders from non-leaders. This theory suggests that leadership qualities are innate and stable across various situations, focusing on the personal attributes of leaders rather than situational factors.

Question 17

behavioural theories of leadership

Answer 17

Behavioral theories of leadership focus on the actions and behaviors of leaders rather than their inherent traits. These theories suggest that leadership skills can be learned and developed through observation, experience, and training. They emphasize the importance of specific behaviors, such as task-oriented or relationship-oriented approaches, in determining leadership effectiveness and effectiveness in achieving organizational goals.

Question 18

situational leadership explain

Answer 18

Contingency theory, specifically situational leadership, posits that the most effective leadership style depends on the situation at hand. Leaders must adapt their approach based on factors such as task complexity, follower skills, and environmental conditions. This theory emphasizes flexibility, suggesting that different situations require different leadership styles for optimal results.

Question 19

transactional leadership / transformial leadership explain

Answer 19

Transactional leadership focuses on exchanges between leaders and followers, emphasizing rewards and punishments to motivate performance. Leaders clarify expectations, set goals, and provide rewards for achieving them while correcting deviations through disciplinary actions.

Transformational leadership inspires and motivates followers by appealing to higher ideals and values. Leaders stimulate intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and inspirational motivation, fostering creativity, innovation, and commitment among followers.

Question 20

identity leadership explain

Answer 20

Identity leadership emphasizes the importance of understanding and leveraging one’s identity—such as race, gender, culture, or other social identities—to lead effectively. It involves self-awareness, authenticity, and inclusivity, recognizing how one’s identity shapes their leadership style and interactions with others, and leveraging these aspects to foster diversity, equity, and inclusion within organizations.

Question 21

two factor theory (Herzberg)

Answer 21

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from different sets of factors. Hygiene factors, like working conditions and salary, prevent dissatisfaction when adequate but do not directly increase satisfaction. Motivational factors, such as recognition and responsibility, lead to job satisfaction and increased motivation when present, but their absence does not necessarily cause dissatisfaction.

Question 22

self determination theory ( Deci and Ryan)

Answer 22

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that** individuals are motivated by three innate needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. **Fulfilling these needs leads to intrinsic motivation and well-being. Autonomy involves feeling in control, competence relates to feeling effective, and relatedness pertains to feeling connected to others. SDT highlights the importance of supporting these needs for optimal motivation and psychological health.

Question 23

goal setting theory (locke et Latham)

Answer 23

Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory asserts that specific, challenging goals lead to higher performance when accepted and committed to by individuals. Clear goals provide direction, focus attention, and increase effort. Feedback on goal progress enhances motivation and persistence. The theory emphasizes the importance of setting clear and achievable goals in driving performance and facilitating personal growth.

Question 24

reinforcment theory (Skinner)

Answer 24

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory suggests that behavior is influenced by consequences. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behavior to increase its occurrence. Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to reinforce behavior. Punishment decreases behavior by applying an unpleasant consequence. This theory underscores the role of reinforcement in shaping and maintaining behavior within individuals and organizations.

Question 25

expectancy theory (Vroom)

Answer 25

Vroom's Expectancy Theory posits that** individuals are motivated to act based on their expectations about the outcomes of their actions.** It suggests that motivation depends on three factors: expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance), instrumentality (belief that performance leads to outcomes), and valence (value of outcomes). High expectations in these areas lead to greater motivation and effort.

Question 26

Social identity theory

Answer 26

Social Identity Theory proposes that** individuals define themselves based on their group memberships, fostering a sense of belonging and self-esteem**. People categorize themselves and others into ingroups (groups they belong to) and outgroups (groups they don't). Ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation can arise, contributing to intergroup conflict and discrimination, highlighting the significance of group identity in social behavior.

Question 27

self esteem (Argyle)

Answer 27

Self-esteem: One's overall evaluation or perception of their own worth, value, competence, and significance as a person.

Question 28

self presentation and impression managment (Goffman, Jones and pittman)

Answer 28

Self-presentation, influenced by Goffman's dramaturgical approach and Jones and Pittman's theory, involves** how individuals strategically shape others' perceptions of them.** People manage impressions through various techniques, including conformity, ingratiation, and self-promotion, to convey desired identities. This process aims to control social outcomes and enhance self-image, highlighting the role of presentation in social interactions and identity construction.

Question 29

self concept in different cultures (Jen)

Answer 29

Self-concept, as studied by Jen, varies across cultures due to differing values and social norms. In collectivist cultures, individuals emphasize group identity and interdependence, shaping their self-concept as interconnected with others. In individualistic cultures, self-concept emphasizes personal attributes and independence.** These cultural differences influence how individuals perceive themselves and their roles within society.**

Question 30

Definition of group norms

Answer 30

Group norms: Shared expectations, rules, and standards of behavior that guide and regulate the actions and interactions of members within a group, shaping group dynamics and influencing individual behavior.

Question 31

Social facilitation/inhibition explain

Answer 31

Social facilitation refers to the tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others, due to arousal and the motivation to impress. However, on complex tasks, individuals may experience social inhibition, where the presence of others leads to performance decrements due to heightened self-awareness and distraction from the task.

Question 32

social loafing explain

Answer 32

**Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in a group setting compared to when working alone.** This phenomenon arises due to diffusion of responsibility and decreased accountability, leading to a reduction in individual effort. Social loafing can occur when individuals feel their contributions are less noticeable or when they perceive that others will compensate for their lack of effort.

Question 33

prejudice def

Answer 33

Preconceived opinions or attitudes held about individuals or groups based on stereotypes, often without factual basis or experience.

Question 34

discrimination def

Answer 34

Unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, or religion.

Question 35

stereotypes def

Answer 35

Oversimplified beliefs or assumptions about individuals or groups, often based on limited information or experiences, which can lead to generalizations and prejudice.

Question 36

what are subtle form of discrimination

Answer 36

reluctance to help, tokenism (The practice of making a symbolic effort to include individuals or groups from underrepresented backgrounds, often without addressing underlying systemic issues of inequality.) Reverse discrimination

Question 37

sex definition

Answer 37

Sex: Biological classification based on physical attributes, chromosomes, and reproductive organs, typically categorized as male or female.

Question 38

gender definition

Answer 38

Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities associated with being male, female, or non-binary, shaped by cultural, societal, and individual factors.

Question 39

exemple of forms of discrimination in the work place

Answer 39

Forms of discrimination in the workplace include: 1. Hiring bias: Preferring certain candidates based on factors like race, gender, or age. 2. Pay inequity: Paying employees differently for the same work based on their gender, race, or other characteristics. 3. Promotion bias: Promoting individuals based on factors unrelated to job performance, such as personal relationships or demographics. 4. Harassment: Creating a hostile work environment through unwelcome conduct based on protected characteristics like race, gender, or sexual orientation. 5. Retaliation: Punishing employees for exercising their rights, such as reporting discrimination or harassment. 6. Glass ceiling: Systemic barriers preventing certain groups, often women or minorities, from advancing to higher positions within an organization.