Psychology and Sociology Flashcards
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system.
acetylcholinesterase
enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine (ACh) in the synaptic cleft
achieved status
statuses that are considered to be largely due to an individual’s efforts.
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response.
action potential
A localized change in a neuron’s membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all or none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels will repolarize the membrane.
activation-synthesis theory
The theory that dreams are due to brain activation during our REM sleep and they are not necessarily meaningful or purposeful
actor-observer bias
We are likely to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities.
adrenal cortex
The outer region of the adrenal gland. It produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress. It produces aldosterone in response to low blood pressure or low blood osmolarity.
adrenal medulla
This is the inner region of the adrenal gland. It is part of the sympathetic nervous system and will release epinephrine (adrenaline
) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epi and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body. (fight or flight)
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex (outer part of adrenal gland) and stimulates it to release cortisol and aldosterone.
affect
a person’s visible emotion in the moment
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity.
Ainsworth, Mary
She is known for her “strange situation experiments” where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment and see how they react. This provided a distinction between securely and insecurely attached infants.
alpha waves
low amplitude, high frequency brain waves that are present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first sign that someone is ready to drift off to sleep.
altruism
behavior that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of that individual.
Alzheimer’s Disease
the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories- known as anterograde amnesia. Damage to parietal lobe is common.
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine and form a new group
amygdala
almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences.
anal stage (Freud’s psychosexual stages)
This is the second of five psychosexual stages outlines by Freud, and child seeks pleasure through control of elimination.
anterior pituitary gland
This is also known as the adenohypophysis. This is made of glandular tissue and secretes SIX different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus.
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
antisocial personality disorder
A psychological disorder when person has history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence (significant aggression against people or animals, property destruction, lying, theft, serious rule violation)
anxiety disorder
emotional state of constant preparation for fight or flee- very unpleasant mental arousal. In this disorder, anxiety is frequent, intense, and irrational. Causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning.
aqueous humor
A thin, watery fluid found in the anterior compartment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). It is constantly produces and drained, helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea and remove metabolic waste.
Asch, Solomon
Conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates and observing behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions.
ascribed status
Statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person’s own efforts.
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning.
Attenuation model of selective attention
Model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator that can tune inputs to be attended and tune down others. This accounts for the cocktail party effect.
attitude
person’s feelings and beliefs about other people and events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations
attribution theory
attempts to explain how individuals view behavior- ours and others- by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes.
auditory cortex
Area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound
auditory tube
AKA Eustachian tube (you-stay-kee-in), connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. Function: equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal.
authoritarian parenting
parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally to control children. This parenting style is demanding and often relies on punishment.
authoritative parenting
places limits o behaviors and consistently follows through with consequences, but also expresses warmth and is nurturing.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system that can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.
availability heuristic
mental shortcut of making judgements based on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily available it is in our memories.
avoidance learning
The process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present.
avoidant personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism.
axon
a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated.
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby’s big toe moves upward and other toes fan out.
back stage (dramaturgical perspective)
this is where we can “let our guard down” and be ourselves as opposed to “front-stage” where we are playing a role for others.
Bandura, Albert
Famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning.
baroreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure.
basal nuclei
AKA basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement (of body)
basilar membrane
flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of corti (structure that contains hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. The difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch.
behavioral genetics
study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual’s personality and behaviors.
behavioral therapy
uses conditioning to shape a client’s behaviors in the desired direction
behaviorism
according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates
beliefs
convictions or principles that people within a culture hold.
belief bias
a tendency to draw conclusions based on what you already believe, rather than sound logic.
belief perseverance
Maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary
bilateral descent
A system of lineage in which the relatives on mom and dad’s sides are equally important.
biofeedback
recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual I attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses. Ex: muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate
bipolar disorder
psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes or ‘poles,’ depression and mania. In bipolar 1 disorder, a person has experienced at least on manic or mixed episode. In Bipolar 2 disorder, the manic phases are less extreme.
bipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and a single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body, Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory neurons.
cones
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision.
confirmation bias
tendency to search only for info that stems from previous beliefs.
conflict theory
a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. There will be unequal resources in all facets of this society.
conversion disorder
psychological disorder in which a change in sensory or motor function has no discernible cause. Symptoms worsen after stressor or emotional conflict.
cornea
clear portion of the tough layer of the eyeball. found over iris and pupil.
corpus callosum
largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.
cortisol
steroid hormone that is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body’s use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus ‘sparing’ glucose for the brain’s use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity
crude birth rate
annual number of live births per thousand people in a population
cult
a religious organization that is far outside of society’s norms
cultural capital
the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
cultural relativism
judging another culture based on its own cultural standards.
cyclothymic disorder
psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme
death instinct
according to psychoanalytic theory, this drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself or others
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture
demography
the study of human population dynamics… size, structure, changes in population due to births, deaths, etc.
depersonalization disorder
a psychological disorder in which there is a persistent or recurring feeling of being detached and outside of one’s body or mental processes. Like seeing yourself from the outside.
depolarization
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential
depressant
class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity like alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates
DSM
universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders
diencephalon
The portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus
difference threshold or just noticeable difference (JND)
this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time.
dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
disorganized-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech and or behavior
dissociative amnesia
a psych disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information
dissociative disorder
psych disorder in which a person’s thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors are being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness.
dissociative fugue
psych disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall info before journey
dramaturgical approach
assumes that people are performers and everyday life is a stage- people choose what they want to display to others verbally and nonverbally
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words with associated images than either words or just images alone.
Durkheim, Emile
considered father of sociology and major proponent of functionalism.
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, to timing of sleep. For example, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, insomnia
dysthymic disorder
psych disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic from of depression. Person felt milder symptoms of depression for at least two years (most days)
ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions
echoic memory
memory for sound- lasts about 3-4 seconds
efferent neurons
a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron
ego
according to freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id.
elaboration likelihood model
model that explains when people may be influenced by the content of an argument or when they may be persuaded by superficial characteristics.
Electra Complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (freud’s five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and is hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival.
electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
recording of electrical impulses to the brain
EMG electromyogram
recording of skeletal muscle movements
EOG electrooculogram
recording of eye movements
encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
endocrine gland
a ductless gland that secretes hormones into blood
endogamy
practice of marrying within a particular group
epinephrine
hormone that is produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
episodic buffer
Part of Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory that interacts with information in long term memory
episodic memory
autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential closer to the threshold for an action potential.
Erikson, Erik
supplemented freud’s theory of development by passing factors such as trust v mistrust, autonomy v shame, etc
estrogen
primary female sex hormone that stimulates the development of female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains them, and stimulates development of new uterine lining after menstruation
executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, etc
exocrine gland
a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity.
explicit (or declarative) memory
memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge
feature detection theory
a theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus, such as shape, color, line, movements, etc
fecundity
potential reproductive capacity of a female in a pop
filter model
model of selective attention
Five-Factor Model (Costa and McCrae)
model developed to explain personality using five overarching traits such as extroversion, agreeableness, etc
folkways
norms that are more informal but still shape our everyday lives
food desert
in urban areas, ex: can’t find grocery stores easily
formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth stage of developmental theory from age 12-adulthood. People learn moral and abstract reasoning
functional fixedness
tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging.
functionalism (structural functionalism)
oldest of the main theories of sociology, this theory conceptualizes society as a living organism where each part has a distinct purpose
fundamentalists
people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs.
Gage, Phineas
famous man who endured damage to prefrontal cortex and his symptoms included impulsivity, inability to stick to plans and inability to demonstrate empathy
ganglion
a clump of gray matter (unmylelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the peripheral nervous system
general fertility rate
annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age within a population
generalization (classical conditioning)
process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society and taking on the perspective of a generalized other
genital stage
fifth of freud’s stages, begins in adolescence one sexual themes resurface and person focuses energy on friendships, art, sports, etc
gestalt psychology
theory that brain processes information in a holistic manner; specifically for visual information
glucagon
a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas. It primarily targets the liver, stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose levels
gonadotropins
anterior pituitary tropic hormones; follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulate the gonads to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids
gray matter
unmyelinated cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons
group polarization
phenomenon where groups tend to intensify their views to be more extreme (than what is was for the average member)
growth hormone
released by anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body
Gumplowicz, Ludwig
expanded on Marx’s idea about Conflict theory proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest- leads to certain groups being dominant over others
gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food
habit
action performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
habituation
decrease in response to stimulus after repeated presentations
hair cells
sensory receptors in the inner ears. Cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration (for balance)
hallucinogens
class of drugs aka psychedelics that distort perceptions in absence of any sensory input- for example- LSD and marijuana
halo effect
tendency to believe that people inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics
Harlow, Harry and Margaret
known for experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Being raised in isolation can cause serious mental and social deficits
heuristics
mental shortcuts used for problem-solving. Sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed
hippocampus
located in medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays key role in forming memories. Damage can cause anterograde amnesia
histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention, and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior.
humanistic psych
perspective developed partially in response to Freud’s analytic theory which emphasizes inherent drive toward self-actualization. Carl Rogers is associated
hypochondriasis
psych disorder when person has preoccupation with the fear of having a serious illness.
hypophysis
pituitary gland
hypothalamus
brain structure located above the brain stem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temp, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep. It is also involved in physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased heart rate
iconic memory
brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second
individuation
term for identity formation
illusory correlation
a perceived relationship between two things when none exists
implicit (procedural) memory
memory that involved conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something
inclusive fitness
theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruism) promotes genetic success even if not all organisms survive to reproduce.
incongruity
the emotional result when the real self falls short of the ideal self
infantile amnesia
lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before age 3.5
information-processing models
models for cognition that assume information from the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and feel like others “know something we don’t”
insecure attachment
may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when mother finally returns to the room
insight learning
sudden flash of inspiration or “aha” moment when learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
intellectual disability
IQ below 70 and functional impairment
intergenerational mobility
change in social class between parents and children within a family
interneuron
neuron found completely within the central nervous system. Typically connect sensory and motor neurons, especially in reflex arcs
intragenerational mobility
describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential; a slight hyper polarization of a postsynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold.
iris
pigmented membrane found just infront of the lens of the eye. In the center of the iris is the pupil, a hole through which light enters the eyeball. The iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to brightness of light
James-Lange Theory
Theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is a result of physiological and behavioral responses.
K-complex
large and slow wave with a duration of a half second that occurs in stage 2 sleep.
kinship
blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
six identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior. Most people don’t make it past the fourth stage.
language acquisition
the process by which infants learn to understand and speak their native language
language acquisition device
innate feature of the human brain that allows people to gain mastery of language during childhood (Noah Chomsky)
latency stage (Freud psychosexual)
fourth stage when interests are replaced with school, friends, and sports.
latent content (freud)
unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underlie dreams
latent functions
unintended or less recognizable consequences of social structure
libido
According to psychoanalytic theory, libido is a life instinct, which drives behaviors focused on survival, pain avoidance, creativity, seeking pleasure
linguistic relativity hypothesis
asserts that the language one speaks will determine their thoughts and perceptions of the world.
long-term potentiation
persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation
looking glass self
idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with other in society and the perceptions of others,
luteinizing hormone (LH)
tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads. In females, LH triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle. In men, LH stimulates the production and release of testosterone
manifest content
according to freud, the overt storylines of dreams.
manifest functions
the intended and obvious consequences of a social structure. This is the opposite of latent functions
Marx, Karl
identified with conflict theory, manpower vs who owns the manpower and means of production. Believed that capitalism would ultimately end to revert to socialism. One of the founding fathers of socialism
master status
the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines the individual’s general position in society
matrilineal descent
system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother’s side are considered the most important; and individual belongs to their mother’s lineage
mechanoreceptor
sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled) They include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells, muscle spindles, etc.
medulla oblongata
portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate blood pressure, and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, coughing.
melatonin
hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions
meninges
protective connective tissue wrappings of the central nervous system (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and Pia mater)
mental set
tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past, even if they may not apply to the current situation
mere exposure affect
phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them (sometimes repeatedly)
mere presence
the most “basic” level of interaction between individuals
meritocracy
the idealized and not actual social standings structure
method of loci
memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place, such as your home, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered
midbrain
portion of the brain responsible for the visual and auditory startle reflexes.
mindguarding
pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus, which creates an illusion of unanimity
mirror neurons
neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is sensed in another. Could be the basis for empathy
misinformation effect
tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental coding
mood
a person’s sustained internal emotion that colors their view of life
mores
norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced.
moro reflex
startle reflex- present from birth to six months
multipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axons and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system
myelin
in the PNS, known as Schwann cells and in the CNS, known as oligodendrocytes
negative feedback
a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system which produces a result, which feeds back to stop the system from maintaining that result.
neuron
the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system. Neuron is highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials.
neurotransmitter
chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize (EPSP) or hyperpolarize (IPSP) example- acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, and others.
night terror
occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares. Person may walk around or babble, and remember none of it the next morning.
nociceptors
pain receptors- found everywhere in the body except for the brain
nodes of ranvier
gaps in myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons. Action potentials can ‘jump’ from node to node, increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)
norepinephrine (NE)
the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the postganglionic (organ level) synapse
normative organization
membership is based on morally relevant goals
nucleus accumbens
structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway. Releases dopamine in response to many drugs, contributing to addictive behavior
OCD v OCPD
I have OCD, while OCPD is like hoarding
Oedipus complex
this complex occurs during phallic stage when male is attracted to mother
olfactory receptors
chemoreceptors in upper nasal cavity that respond to odor chemicals
operant conditioning
AKA instrumental conditioning. Form of associative learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase frequency of behaviors and punishments decrease them
optic disk
‘blind spot’ of the eye where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve. There are no photoreceptors in the optic disk.
optic nerve
the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information. Made upon axons of the ganglion cells of the retina.
optimism bias
belief that bad things happen to others, but not to us
oral stage
first of freud’s five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks pleasure through teething, chewing, sucking
organ of Corti
structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane. The organ is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduce to action potentials
ossicles
the three small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes) that amplify vibrations from sound waves. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea.
outer ear
portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal. Separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
oval window
membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
palmar grasp reflex
in response to stroking a baby’s palm, baby will grasp. Lasts a few months
parallel processing
a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of a step-by-step or serial fashion.
posterior pituitary gland
aka the neurohypophysis, made up of nervous tissue (neurons) and stores and secretes two hormones made by the hypothalamus: oxytocin and ADH. Controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus
postganglionic neuron
in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a preganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ
prefrontal cortex
anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, social responses, decision making. Directs behavioral aspects or emotion including approach and avoidance behaviors.
preganglionic neuron
in the autonomic nervous division of the PNS, and neuron that has a cell body located in the CNS, and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron’s axon synapses with the target organ)
preoperational stage
Piaget’s second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2 to 7. children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can mean something else. Remain egocentric
primary groups
groups that play a more important role in an individual’s life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups tend to be smaller, more engagement and long term, emotional.
primary effect
person has better chance at recalling first items on a list
primary reinforcers
unconditioned consequences that are innately satisfying or desirable. May be biologically driven
priming
an effect of implicit memory whereby stimulus ‘primes’ brain to respond to a later stimulus
proactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently.
progesterone
steroid hormone that is produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle. It maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of a fertilized ovum. Primary hormone secreted during pregnancy
prolactin
hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the mammary glands and stimulates them to produce milk
proprioceptor
receptor that responds to changes in body position, such as a stretch on a tendon. Receptors allow us to be consciously aware of our body parts
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
psychoanalytic theory
a personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
psychological disorder
set of behavior and or psych symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and are severe enough to cause distress in different facets of life.
psychological fixation
(freud) adult personality is largely determined during the first three psychosexual stages. If parents frustrate or indulge child, it will stay with child or not during adulthood.
punishment
in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated (can be positive or negative)
pupil
a hole in the center of the iris or the eye that allows light to enter
rapid eye movement (REM)
bursts of quick eye movement in the last stage of sleep
recency effect
tendency to recall last items presented in a list
reciprocal determinism
reciprocal interaction between a person’s behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors
recognition
multiple choice
reflex arc
a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows extremely rapid response to a stimulus. Often without conscious brain involvement
rehearsal (memory)
technique of repeating verbal information in one’s phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory.
relative poverty
inability to meet the average standards living within a society
relative refractory period
period of time following an action potential when it is possible, but difficult for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is hyper polarized.
REM stage
final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements (REM) and beta waves, which are seen in individuals when they are awake. Generally when dreams occur and known as the “paradoxical sleep.” small body twitches occur
replacement level fertility
number of children that someone must have to replace number in population that has died
residual-type schizophrenia
a psychological where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some mider symptoms persist
resource model of attention
attention is a limited resource. if multiple tasks do not exceed the limit or ‘threshold,’ then they came be completed simultaneously
reticular formation
AKA the reticular activating system, structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal (as in wakefulness)
retina
innermost layer of the eyeball. made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells
retroactive interference
newly learned information interferes with ability to recall information learned previously
rods
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision
Rogers, Carl
considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, carl rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy
routine reflex
baby opening mouth in response to cheek being stroked
saltatory conduction
rapid form of action potentials when they jump from the nodes or ranvier.
sanctions
rewards or punishments for actions that comply or don’t comply with societal norms
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
people understand and shape their view of the world through their language
Schachter-Singer Theory
theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of physiological arousal occurs first and is followed by a conscious interpretation or appraisal that allows for identification of experienced emotion
schizoaffective disorder
a psych disorder characterized by combination of mood and psych symptoms: in this disorder, both symptoms of schizophrenia and major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced at least once a month
schizoid personality disorder
psych disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships
schizophrenia
chronic and incapacitating and characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, or personal functioning
schizophreniform disorder
schizophrenia symptoms present for a period of one to six months, during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning
schizotypal personality disorder
several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions.
sclera
white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball
secondary reinforcer
ex: money- not innately rewarding but we have learned that is can provide access to primary reinforcers
sect
religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed
selective priming
being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected
self-esteem v self-efficacy
one’s overall evaluation of their worth v. the belief in one’s competence and effectiveness
self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information that has a personal tie
self-schemas
the beliefs and ideas that people have about themselves
semantic memory
memory for factual information
semicircular canals
three loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance
sensorimotor stage
(Piaget) birth to age 2 when babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety
sensory memory
initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; very brief snapshot that quickly decays
serial position effect
primary and recency effect
shaping
in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate, proximal behaviors until a final, desired behavior is achieved.
short-term memory
memory that is limited in duration and capacity
signal detection theory
a hit, a miss, a false alarm, a correct rejection
Skinner, BF
‘operant conditioning’ and ‘skinner box’
sleep cycle
one sleep cycle consists of progression through sleep stages 1 through 4 in sequence, followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1, then a transition into REM. Typically takes about 90 minutes.
sleep spindle
bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep
social construct
everyone in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value (virginity)
social epidemiology
focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
social facilitation effect
people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present
social loafing
people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group
social reproduction
structures and activities in place that reinforce social inequality through generations. Ex: cultural capital and social capital
socialism
economic system where resources and production are collectively owned
sociobiology
how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior
social phobia
unreasonable and paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed while being watched by others- even simple tasks
soma
cell body of a neuron
somatization disorder
characterized by variety of physical symptoms over an extended period of time (many different facets)
somatoform disorder
psych disorder characterized primarily by physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical (somatic) disease. Not explainable medically
somnambulism
sleepwalking
source traits
factor underlying human personality and behavior
spatial summation
integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSP and IPSP) from multiple sources
spotlight model
model for visual attenuation, with a spotlight representing one’s ability to unlock from a current target and move to a new one
spreading activation theory
nodes activating with activate other nodes when trying to recall information
state capitalism
companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulation
stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people
stereotype threat
refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
steroid hormone
hormone derived from cholesterol. Steroids are generally hydrophobic and can easily cross the plasma membrane of cells, thus receptors are found intracellularly. Once steroid binds to receptor, the receptor-steroid complex acts to regulate transcription in the nucleus
stimulants
class of drugs that speed up body functions and neural activity. Includes caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines
symbolic interactionism
micro-level theory in sociology which examines the relationship between individuals and society by communication and exchange of info through symbols
sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
subdivision of the autonomic nervous system directing the “flight or flight”
synapse
a neuron-to-neuron, neuron-to-organ, or muscle cell- to-muscle cell junction
temperament
dispositional emotional excitability. tends to be fairly stable through lifespan
telencephalon
the cerebral hemispheres
temporal summation
summation by a postsynaptic cell of input EPSPs or IPSPs over time
thalamus
the central structure of the diencephalon of the brain. Acts to relay information and integrate sensory impulse
theta waves
waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency present during stage 1 of sleep
tonic neck reflex
in response to baby head being turned one way, will stretch arm and bend opposite elbow- last 6-7 months
top-down processing
brain uses experience and expectations to interpret sensory information
tropic hormone
hormone that controls the release of another hormone
tympanic membrane
eardrum- separates outer ear and middle ear
undifferentiated-type schizophrenia
basic criteria for schizophrenia, but symptoms don’t fit other subtypes.
universal emotions
six major emotions that appear to be universal across cultures: happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
universal grammar
basic rules of language that are presumed to be innate that allow human mind to gain mastery during development
utilitarian organization
members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses
vagus nerves
cranial nerve pair X. The vagus nerves are very large nerves (carry both sensory input and motor output) that innervate virtually every visceral organ. Especially important for transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle.
visual cortex
the area of the occipital love responsible for processing visual information
visuospatial sketchpad
Part of Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory that allows for the repetition of visuospatial information (images) to aid with encoding it into memory
vitreous humor
a thick, gelatinous fluid found in the posterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the retina). The vitreous humor is only produced during fetal development and helps maintain intraocular pressure (pressure inside the eye)
Weber, Max
agreed with Marx ideas about Conflict Theory but did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable. He believed there would be more than one source of conflict. A founding father or sociology
Weber’s law
pertains to sensory perception and dictates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for them to be discernible
welfare capitalism
a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
Wernicke’s area
area of the brain located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the language-dominant hemisphere of the brain (left side for most people), that is involved with the comprehension of speech and written language. People with damage to this area are unable to understand language and produce nonsensical sounds with the same rhythm and syntax as speech
white matter
myelinated axons
working memory
short-term memory for information in immediate awareness. Baddeley asserts that it consists of four components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
Yerkes-Dodson Law
upside down U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance. Moderate arousal produces the best performance
Zimbardo, Philip
known for his prison study that centered around role play
Affective means…
emotion. Ex: affective processing means emotional processing
What is an assumption of Experimental studies?
give random assignments, systematically manipulate things, etc.
