Psychology Flashcards
Define “attitudes”
Enduring opinions about objects and / or situations- predispose individuals to certain behaviours
What are the three components of the triadic model?
COGNITIVE- concerned with beliefs (going to the gym keeps me fit)
AFFECTIVE(emotional)- reflects values (i enjoy going to the gym)
BEHAVIOURAL- intended behaviour (attend the gym regularly)
Give examples of how attitudes are formed
Friends Peers Media Family Teachers Coaches Past experiences Media
What are the two ways in which attitudes can be changed?
PERSUASION- from someone of a high status with a relevant message. (E.g a high status coach improves motivation of gymnasts as they show confidence in the ability of the gymnast)
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE- change of one aspect of the triadic model. The person involved will seek to change other elements. (E.g if the health benefits are emphasised, may change beliefs and/ or behaviour
How can attempts to changing attitude be more effective?
Freedom of choice Persuader is a role model Action follows communication Quality message Two-sided arguement
How can dissonance be reduced?
Change one of the elements- become more consistent in attitude
Reduce importance of one of the elements
Give examples of why individuals have a positive attitude towards sport
Health Enjoy the competition Activity is the social norm Excited by challenges Personal Expression
Give examples of why individuals have a negative attitude towards sport
Exercise is harmful Fear failure Low status activity among family and friends Fear of the unknown Gender-race constraints
Explain briefly prejudice in sport
Judgement of a person, group or situation
Based on little and inadequate information
Done to reinforce stereotypes
Example: when a woman joins a golf club and finds it difficult to gain full membership where as its more accessible to men
Define aggression
A deliberate / intended behaviour to harm which is outside the rules. Can be verbal or physical
Give causes of aggression
Reaction to a hostile situation Losing, wide score margin Actual or perceived unfairness in play Nature of the game Frustration at poor performance Influence outside of sport Previous ill- feeling Excessive pressure to win Retaliation to an incident
How can aggression be eliminated?
COGNITIVE-
• imagery & positive self talk
• distancing from cues & rational thinking
SOMATIC-
•relaxation techniques, breathing exercises
•given a role of responsibility and emphasis on non aggressive role models
•reinforcing nn- aggressive behaviours
•process of attribution
What are the four theories of aggression?
Instinct theory
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Aggression-cue hypothesis
Social learning theory
What is assertion?
Forceful, but legitimate behaviour. Not intended to harm or injure. Goal directed (e.g. rugby tackle)
What is catharsis?
The view that sport and exercise can be used to channel aggressive urges into more socially desirable actions
Explain the Instinct theory (aggression)
Innate
Product of evolution and will surface under provocation
Suggests we are born with aggressive inclinations and will use them if needed
Criticisms;
No biological innate aggressive drive has ever been discovered
Measure of cathartic effect of aggression has proven difficult
Explain the frustration-aggression hypothesis
Aggression is inevitable frustrating circumstances Cause our goals to be blocked
If aggressive tenancy is released, catharsis may occurs, if not released frustration occurs
Criticisms;
Not all frustration leads to aggression ( learned helplessness)
Aggression can be a learnt response not always as a result of frustration
Individual and situational differences aren’t taken into account
Explain the aggression- cue hypothesis
Aggression only occurs if cues are present
Most viable explanation as it allows for environmental and frustration factors
Deals with issues being innate and can be learnt or reinforced
Aggression can be controlled and deviancy can be reduced
Explain the social learning theory (aggression)
Aggression is learned from experience, coaches, or significant others
Aggressive behaviour will be copied if reinforced
When will social facilitation affect performance?
High arousal leads to improved performance by; • highly skilled performer • gross skills • simple skills • extrovert performer
• links to the drive theory
When will social inhibition affect performance?
High arousal leads to reduced performance by; • novices • fine skills • complex skills • introvert performer
Define social facilitation
The effect that the presence of spectators has on the way sportspeople perform
Positive: facilitation
Negative: inhibition
What are the different types of audiences in social facilitation?
PASSIVE: (facilitators)
•audience
•co-actors
INTERACTIVE:
•competitors
•spectators
What are co-actors?
Passive form of audience
Involved in the same activity at the same time as the performer but doesn’t compete directly
E.g officials, team members, ball boys
Explain Zajonc’s mode
Presence of others affect arousal, which affects performance
- if a skill is poorly learnt, arousal causes an incorrect response because its dominant (early in performance curve)
- if a skill is well learnt, arousal causes the correct dominant response (later in performance curve)
Links to inverted-U-theory
What is the Evaluation Apprehension theory?
Audience is perceived as evaluating the performance
Cheers and jeers cause anxiety which causes arousal
What are the coping strategies which are used to overcome evaluation apprehension anxiety?
Stress management Mental rehearsal Selective attention Lowering importance of the situation Training with an audience present
What effect does an audience have on the performance of athletes?
Increased arousal levels
Increased arousal heightens dominant habit
Deterioration in performance of weaker players due to incorrect dominant response
Improvement of stronger players due to correct dominant response
Extroverts need stimulation to perform at optimum level, introverts need less
Homefield advantage/disadvantage
Significant others which make up crowd
Proximity of crowd
Distraction from the crowd- conflict theory
Explain the distraction effect
Attentional focus is important to the sportsperson, if disrupted they can be distracted from their task
Audience and evaluation apprehension acts as a distraction
Explain homefield advantage
More teams win at home than away- 53-64% win
Crowds can be supportive or hostile
Hostility leads to anxiety which reduce performances
Home environments are more familiar and comfortable which limits anxiety
E.g. GB team won the more medals by 15%
What are methods used to combat social inhibition?
Practice with an audience Selective attention Cognitive techniques Somatic techniques Decrease importance of events Social support from team members Increase self efficacy
What are the characteristics of a group?
A common goal Collective identity Structured patterns of communication Group unity Shared purpose Mutual independance
Explain Steiner’s model of group performance
Suggested that a successful team is often more than the sum of individual talents
Unsuccessful team in often less than sum of its individual talents
ACTUAL PRODUCTIVITY= POTENTIAL PRODUCTIVITY- LOSSES DUE TO FAULTY PROCESSES
What is a coordinational loss?
(Ringlemann effect)
Breakdown in teamwork/strategies
Performance of an individual may decrease as the group size increases
What are motivational losses?
(Social loafing)
Individual which loses motivation and withdraws effort from the game
Prevents team co-ordination and inhibits team cohesion
What are causes of social loafing?
Others in team not making effort Performance is never watched by the coach Low self confidence Negative experience/failure Task is too difficult
How can cohesiveness be improved?
Select players less likely to social loaf Reward and give credit to success Set goals Clarify roles and responsibilities Punish social loafing Encouragement Reinforcement Good leadership
Give some characteristics of leaders
Decisive Ambition Motivated Charisma Experience Understanding Empathy Communication Vision
Why is effective leadership important?
Success of team/individuals Player satisfaction Influence over behaviour Team cohesion Develop a motivational environement
What are the two types of leaders?
EMERGENT
Come from within the group
Nominated or elected based on their skills and abilities
PRESCRIBED
Appointed by governing body or outside agency
What is an autocratic leader?
Task orientated Make decisions quickly and effectively Authoritative Doesn’t take into account opinions Focused on achievement
When are autocratic leaders most useful?
Large groups
Dangerous situations
What are democratic leaders?
People orientated
Shares decisions with group
Delegates responsibility
Interested in relationships
When are democratic leaders most useful?
No time constraints
Co-active games
Where personal support is required
What is a Laissez-Faire leader?
Leader which stands aside and allows the group to make decisions independently
Can result in a loss of group direction if leader is inadequate
What are the three leadership theories?
Trait
Social learning
Interactionist
Explain the ‘great man’ theory
Good leadership inherited by sons whose fathers have been successful
Very inclonclusive
What are the components of the interactionist approach? (Chelladurai)
Leaders qualities and style
Group characteristics
Situational characteristics
All contribute to effective leadership
Name situational characteristics for chelladurai’s model
Type of activity in which the group are involved ( co-active, interactive)
Numbers involved in the team
Time constraints
Strength of opposition
Name leaders characteristics (chelladurai’s)
Skill and experience of the leader
Personality of the leader
Name group members characteristics (chelladurai’s)
Age Gender Motivation Competence Experience
What are the components of stage 2 of chelladurai’s model of leadership?
Required behaviour
Preferred behaviour
Actual behaviour
What are the three stages of Chelladurai’s model?
Antecedents
Leader behaviour
Consequences
What is attribution?
Reasons performers give to their success or failure
What are the two types of attributions?
Global
Specific
What does attribution depend on?
Achievement motivation
HIGH ACHIEVERS- attribute success to internal factors and failure to unstable factors
LOW ACHIEVERS- attribute success to external factors and failure to internal, stable factors
What are the two dimensions Weiner came up with and what are the four attributions?
Locus of causality (internal external)
Stability (stable unstable)
- ability
- effort
- luck
- task difficulty
What is learned helplessness?
Problem caused by continually attributing failure to internal and stable factors which can’t be changed
Performers think that;
Failure is inevitable
What they do makes little difference to outcome
Success is due to luck
How can a coach help players to overcome learned helplessness?
Change tactics or blame failure on poor equipment
Use a positive approach
Avoid citing lack of ability as a reason for failure
Make the reasons for failure less personal
How can a coach prevent players developing learned helplessness?
Encourage them to take responsibility of their performance Attribute success internally Allow initial success Use positive feedback and reinforcement Explain early failure Make the activity fun and enjoyable
